This chapter reviews research on the phonetic and phonological production patterns of children exposed to two or more languages in early childhood. Much of the research has examined whether bilingual children differ from monolingual children in their production patterns and, when differences have been found, whether such patterns can be explained by language-internal (e.g., the influence of the phonological properties of one language on the other), language-external (e.g., language input or dominance), or other factors (e.g., the developing lexicon). We focus on language-internal influences, also referred to as cross-linguistic interaction, and review models that have been used to account for interaction. Our findings reveal that, while systematic differences between monolingual and bilingual speech exist, the differences are not large and may be explained by multiple factors. The chapter concludes with a discussion of research limitations which include small participant numbers and a predominance of certain language pairs, factors that have hindered attempts to model cross-linguistic interaction.

The interaction between bilingual phonetic systems is dynamic, shaped by both long-term and short-term factors. Short-term factors, the focus of this chapter, refer to immediate changes in the linguistic situation. This chapter discusses two short-term sources of potential phonetic interference: code-switching and bilingual language mode. A growing body of research on the phonetics of code-switching has shown that code-switching may result in phonetic interference between the L1 and the L2, although outcomes may vary across speakers and features. Language mode describes a bilingual’s position along a continuum, from operation in a monolingual mode, in which only one language is active, to bilingual mode with equal activation of both languages. Recent work has demonstrated that language mode may modulate cross-linguistic phonetic interference, with greater interference found during bilingual mode. Finally, this chapter discusses two variables responsible for modulating and constraining phonetic interference in cases of dual language activation that have emerged in the literature – the nature of the phonetic feature and bilingual language dominance.

We have seen rapid development of various brain training methods in the past few decades that quickly became popular among educators, despite the lack of evidence about these products’ effectiveness. Some negative outcomes prompted researchers from both neuroscience and education to develop collaboratively neuroscience-based approaches to educational and clinical practices. This chapter discusses fundamental training-related questions, such as neuroplasticity, transfer, and individual differences and provides a detailed examination of one domain-specific method (i.e., working memory training) and a multi-domain approach (i.e., music training). Based on the findings, we point out how critical it is to determine the specific cognitive or linguistic skills that researchers intend to target with a given training method prior to the beginning of the training process. Further, it is essential to identify the overlapping processing components and underlying neural regions between the training tasks and the post-training measures to achieve transfer to untrained tasks.

In this chapter, we present an overview of current knowledge about learners’ use and understanding of connectives. In the first part of the chapter, we will see that connectives are notoriously difficult to master for second language learners, because they require an array of complex competences. Learners must know how to use them appropriately in various genres and registers, have a fine-grained understanding of the meaning differences between connectives used to convey similar coherence relations, and also automatize this knowledge so that it is activated automatically during discourse processing, and not only when they consciously elicit usage rules. In the second part of the chapter, we review the important body of studies that have empirically assessed the causes for learners’ difficulties with connectives, and conclude with some recommendations for teaching. We conclude that research on the second language acquisition of connectives contributes to answering important questions, such as what makes connectives difficult to master, and how they are they used across languages.

This chapter reviews features of FL that cannot be reduced to properties of Merge and their standing in a Merge-based account. These include the modularity of FL, the ECP, the Y-model, subjacency/barriers/phase theories of bounding, relativized minimality, and Wh-in-situ constructions.

The influence of one language on the other when bilinguals speak and write monolingually is an intriguing phenomenon. The author first revisits how interference has been defined over the years by major researchers. He then argues that the definitions proposed were simply too broad, and covered not only interferences but also other contact phenomena such as code-switches and borrowings. The only way to get to the bottom of this problem is to control the language mode bilinguals and language learners are in when they are being observed. In addition, he suggests that we differentiate permanent traces of one language on the other (to be called transfers) from ephemeral intrusions of the other language (these would be interferences). The author continues by describing research conducted with his colleagues on Spanish–French bilinguals in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. The results obtained allowed them to have a better understanding of language restructuring in a first language. In addition, and as a by-product, it gave them a way to differentiate ephemeral intrusions from more permanent traces of the other language. He ends the chapter with a few words on bilinguals’ comprehension of speech containing cross-linguistic influences that comprise both transfers and interferences.

Chapter 10 describes how differences between a learner’s first language(s) and the target language(s) may influence their learning experience. Concepts like crosslinguistic transfer, grapheme-phoneme correspondence, and typography are presented through a variety of exemplars. Research-based strategies on how to teach a new writing system, introduce text-based resources featuring unfamiliar scripts, and differentiate instruction based on learners’ linguistic backgrounds are provided.

The high economic growth created jobs to reduce inequality as well as poverty. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, the effect was more than offset by other factors, like the widening wage gap between skilled and unskilled workers. There was also a large amount of transfer to the rich through the real estate market, while fiscal policy transferred little to the poor. Industrial relations were repressive. In the 1980s, inequality slowed to widen as the offsetting factors weakened and the transfer through the real estate market decreased, but industrial relations became more repressive. South Korea sustained high economic growth through the democratization process because, while staving off a possible disaster, democratization was limited in scope. Democratization failed to narrow inequality as it interacted with other forces, but it led to reforms to enhance the transparency of the economy. Independent unions emerged with democratization, but it aggravated the non-performing loans problem.

India and Pakistan adopted modern competition legislations in 2002 and 2007 respectively. This chapter traces and compares the adoption of modern competition legislations in the two countries to understand how these shaped the schemes and ambits of these legislations as well as the extent of their compatibility with and legitimacy in their respective countries. The chapter appraises the pre-conditions of transfer in India and Pakistan focusing particularly on their legal and political institutional landscapes and evaluates their respective motivations for adopting modern competition legislations. It also identifies the transfer mechanisms and the nature and range of legal and political institutions engaged by these countries in the course of adoption, and examines how the interplay of these institutions impacts the compatibility, legitimacy, and content of the adopted legislations.

South Asian countries, i.e., Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, are not only at similar stages of economic development and have comparable relationships with multi-lateral agencies, but are also connected to each other through their geographies as well as parallel and sometimes overlapping histories. Among them, besides India and Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and more recently Maldives have also enacted competition legislation, while Bhutan has a competition policy, and Afghanistan a draft competition legislation which is yet to be enacted. This chapter outlines the pre-conditions of transfer in each of these countries and charts the progress of their competition regimes along the deliberation–enactment–implementation continuum. In doing so, the chapter analyses the motivations, mechanisms, and institutions engaged by each of these countries and evaluates the compatibility and legitimacy generated, or where the adoption has not been completed, likely to be generated, in the course of adoption.

Although law was placed at the centre of the development process in the Law and Development movement launched in the 1960s, there was limited understanding at the time of the factors necessary for borrowed laws to succeed in the adopting country. This chapter investigates the theoretical links between adoption and implementation of borrowed competition laws and integrates strands from comparative law, literature on policy diffusion and transfer, and new institutional economics to develop a framework for examining competition law transplants as they proceed along the deliberation–adoption–implementation continuum. This chapter argues that a borrowed law may be considered successful if it is understood, utilised, and applied in the borrowing country and continues to grow in and become a part of its pre-existing legal system. It further argues that this is only possible if the borrowed law is compatible with the context of the adopting country and enjoys a degree of legitimacy in it.

The physics chapter by Klaus Wendt, Andreas Pysik and Johannes Lhotzky aims at promoting deeper understanding of the complex phenomenon of the rainbow and encourages learners to demonstrate and share their understanding through a Wikipedia article. In this deeper learning episode, learners carry out a number of experiments on spectral colours and colour sequences. They organise the information gathered and explain the physics concepts and processes underlying the phenomenon. The authors use innovative ways of scaffolding academic language development to increase the meaning-making potential of younger learners.

Since 2002 besides India and Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Maldives have also enacted modern competition legislations while Bhutan has adopted a competition policy and Afghanistan has prepared a draft which is yet to be enacted. This chapter examines the state of competition enforcement in these remaining South Asian countries and explores how the adoption processes through which each of these countries have adopted their competition legislation has impacted their enforcement efforts. In the case of countries that are still to adopt competition laws, the chapter predicts their implementation prospects. The chapter also explores how countries that have not made progress towards implementation, may learn from the Indian and Pakistani experience, and ends with discussing the patterns of diffusion and transfer and implementation of competition legislation throughout the region. The chapter identifies a hiatus stage in the adoption–implementation continuum, and argues that countries whose legislations allow for independent competition authorities and have actually established these may be better poised to utilise this hiatus stage to promote a competition culture and facilitate future enforcement than those that embed enforcement entirely within the government.

Chapter 7: Reading Different Languages. This chapter outlines differences in learning to read in differing L1s. Linguistic differences, or linguistic distance, between any given L1 and L2 will be a factor to consider in L2 reading development. The study of linguistic differences when reading across languages also leads to identifying universal linguistic aspects of reading development. The chapter focuses more specifically on differing orthographic systems, from alphabetic systems to morpho-syllabic systems as well as mixed systems. A major source of variation within alphabetic systems is the concept of orthographic depth between orthography and phonology. English is the most opaque orthographic language and, in that respect, is an outlier among languages of the world. Other factors in word recognition development include the informational density of a given orthography, word reading time, and morphological processing. The many differences across languages also impact L1 to L2 reading transfer. The chapter closes with a discussion of reading universals in relation to L1 to L2 reading transfer and provides a set of implications for instruction.

Chapter 3 covers theoretical issues surrounding the nature of a “license” of IP and how it compares to similar rights of usage in the context of real and personal property. It considers whether, as some courts have held, a license is a covenant not to sue, or a property right with more substantial ties to the underlying IP rights. It next addresses the law governing IP transactions, including state contract law, property law, the Uniform Commercial Code and federal common law. It concludes with a discussion of the effects of transfers of IP on underlying license rights.