The North East Hill Region (NEHR) of India is home to diverse maize landraces including pigmented accessions rich in antioxidants and nutritional properties. The present study attempted to characterize a representative collection of this mostly unexplored diversity. Altogether eighty-three local maize landraces from the seven hill states of the NEHR were studied with special emphasis on pigmentation diversity. For the morphological traits, a significant ANOVA indicated the presence of substantial genetic variability for which selection would be fruitful. A number of these accessions were found to have traits that help cope with moisture stress, improve stalk strength and optimize photosynthesis. Principal component analysis studies for the yield attributing traits indicated that ear weight was most variable. The bleaching/histological studies confirmed that anthocyanin pigment when present was always restricted to the aleurone layer of the kernels, typical of blue maize. Quantitative analysis for kernel anthocyanin/phlobaphene content also revealed genetic differences among the accessions. Genetic analysis using the model-based STRUCTURE indicated significant population structuring among the accessions. Specifically, for the pigmentation diversity studies both principal coordinate analysis and neighbour joining methods revealed near concurrent population structuring due in part to the high differentiation of seven of the twenty-one pigmentation specific loci studied. The results obtained provide comprehensive evidence of a significant amount of genetic differentiation among the landraces under study. Landraces are valuable reservoirs of favourable alleles for which selection can be made and, as in this study, identify accessions for breeding maize with enhanced levels of beneficial secondary metabolites.

Integrative taxonomy was used to evaluate two component populations of Procamallanus (Spirocamallanus) inopinatus in Brazil and the phylogeny Camallanidae. Parasite populations were collected in the characiform Anostomoides passionis from River Xingu (Amazon basin) and Megaleporinus elongatus from River Miranda (Paraguay basin). Morphology was analysed using light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Genetic characterization was based on partial sequences of the 18S and 28S rDNA, and COI mtDNA. Phylogenies were based on 18S and COI due to data availability. Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC), Poisson Tree Process (PTP) and *BEAST were used for species delimitation and validation. SEM revealed for the first time the presence of minute denticles and pore-like structures surrounding the oral opening, phasmids in females and confirmed other important morphological aspects. Statistical comparison between the two-component populations indicated morphometric variations, especially among males. The different component population of P. (S.) inopinatus showed variable morphometry, but uniform morphology and were validated as conspecific by the GMYC, PTP and *BEAST. Some camallanid sequences in GenBank have incorrect taxonomic labelling. Host, environment and geographic aspects seem to be related to some lineages within Camallanidae; however, their real phylogenetic meanings are still unclear.

Characterization of indigenous animal genetic resources is a first step in providing much needed information for the conservation and utilization of useful genotypes for future needs. The study was undertaken to estimate heritability of traits of economic importance in local chicken populations from the forest and savannah zones of Ghana. A restricted maximum likelihood animal model was applied to growth data of local chickens from hatch to 40 weeks to estimate heritability, phenotypic and genotypic correlations of body weight and shank length. Heritability, phenotypic and genotypic correlations were also calculated for egg number and egg weight. High genetic and phenotypic correlations were obtained between body weight and shank length. Average heritability estimates were 0.54, 0.42, 0.30 and 0.47 for body weight, shank length, egg number and egg weight, respectively. These moderate-to-high heritability estimates indicate that these traits could be targeted in genetic improvement programmes for local chickens.

Ganjam is an important sheep breed in the Orissa State in the eastern region of India. They are reared mainly for meat. The present study was conducted to characterize the Ganjam breed both phenotypically and genotypically at the DNA level using microsatellite markers. A survey was conducted in the breeding tract to study the habitat, body biometry, management practices and reproductive and productive performance of Ganjam sheep. A total of 604 animals were studied for morphological characteristics. The animals are medium sized with hairy fleece. Their coat colour varies from brown to dark tan. The average flock size is 35. Measurements were recorded for body weight, body length, height at withers, chest girth, ear length and horn length in 366 adult animals. A set of 25 microsatellite markers was used to assess the genetic variability in 50 DNA samples extracted from randomly collected blood samples of unrelated Ganjam sheep across their breeding tract. A total of 137 alleles were identified across the 25 markers. The allele diversity (5.48), mean observed heterozygosity (0.623) and gene diversity (0.685) estimates elucidated substantial genetic diversity within the Ganjam breed. The Mode Shift Test implied that a reduction in the effective population size or a recent genetic bottleneck was very unlikely in this indigenous breed of sheep. The within population inbreeding estimate values for the investigated population (0.087) showed a low rate of inbreeding.

The development of simple, sensitive and rapid methods for the detection and identification of Toxoplasma gondii is important for the diagnosis and epidemiological studies of the zoonotic disease toxoplasmosis. In the past 2 decades, molecular methods based on a variety of genetic markers have been developed, each with its advantages and limitations. The application of these methods has generated invaluable information to enhance our understanding of the epidemiology, population genetics and phylogeny of T. gondii. However, since most studies focused solely on the detection but not genetic characterization of T. gondii, the information obtained was limited. In this review, we discuss some widely used molecular methods and propose an integrated approach for the detection and identification of T. gondii, in order to generate maximum information for epidemiological, population and phylogenetic studies of this key pathogen.

This is the first report of early-life developmental characteristics (coloration pattern, growth and survival) and genetic identification of the wolffish interspecific hybrid between Anarhichas minor and A. lupus, both endangered species in Canadian coastal water and of interest for cold-water aquaculture diversification. A first growth trial at 8 °C featuring pure strains A. minor and the hybrid A. minor × A. lupus in triplicates was conducted in 2006 during the period from 0 to 140 days post-hatch. A second growth trial was runned in 2007 featuring A. minor, A. lupus and the reciprocal hybrids A. minor × A. lupus and A. lupus × A. minor. Egg development indicators and early-hatching characteristics are reported.

The technique of allozyme electrophoresis was applied to species of Onchocerca from cattle to increase the number of enzyme loci established and therefore provide a genetic basis for a rational species-level taxonomy. Twenty-three enzyme loci were established and provided unequivocal genetic evidence for the taxonomic validity of Onchocerca gibsoni, O. gutturosa and O. lienalis. Furthermore, the diagnostic enzyme markers detected form the basis for identification of life-cycle stages, individuals and species and population structure analyses.

Neospora caninum is a cyst-forming parasite that causes abortion in cattle. Despite this parasite's ubiquitous distribution and wide host range, the number of N. caninum isolates obtained to date is limited. In vitro isolation of the parasite is arduous and often unsuccessful. In addition, most isolates have been obtained from clinically affected hosts and therefore could be biased towards more virulent isolates. In this report, an improved isolation approach from transplacentally infected newborn calves was undertaken and 9 new isolates were obtained. Moreover, a microsatellite technique was applied to investigate the genetic diversity of these isolates. Most isolates showed specific genetic profiles. However, the Nc-Spain10 isolate was identical to the previously described Nc-Spain1H isolate and Nc-Spain3H was identical to Nc-Spain4H. These isolates were likely to have identical genotypes because they were isolated from distinct calves of the same herd. Future pathogenic characterization of these isolates will contribute to the investigation of the relationship between isolate virulence and the outcome of infection, as well as other epidemiological features, such as transmission.

Accurate identification of aspermic Fasciola forms in Japan remains difficult because of their morphological variations. In order to characterize the forms genetically, nucleotide sequences of ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and ITS2) and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) and NADH dehydrogenase I (NDI) genes in 34 liver flukes from 16 prefectures in Japan were analysed. Two major forms represented by Fsp 1 and Fsp 2 had sequences identical to or closely resembling those of F. hepatica and F. gigantica, respectively, in all the 4 DNA markers and were mainly distributed in northern and eastern-western parts of Japan, respectively. Fsp 1 and Fsp 2 would have been introduced into Japan with infected cattle of 2 distinct lineages via the Korean Peninsula and spread through limited parts of Japan (northern and eastern-western parts) together with the movement of each cattle lineage. The Japanese form (Fsp 1/2), which showed heterozygosity in ribosomal DNA and Fsp 2 haplotype in mitochondrial DNA, may have originated in interspecific cross hybridization between paternal F. hepatica and maternal F. gigantica.

The present study followed a Plasmodium falciparum population through its life-cycle at the level of individual hosts and vectors. The aim was to determine to what extent genotypes of the parasite that were found in the host were transmitted to the vector. Mosquitoes were collected that had fed on people sleeping under mosquito nets with holes. Genes determining 2 highly polymorphic merozoite surface proteins, MSP-1 and MSP-2, were used to characterize the parasite by PCR at different stages of the life-cycle. The parasite genotypes found in the host were compared to the genotypes of the oocyst stages after transmission to the mosquitoes. The results show that there was no significant correlation in the rate of oocyst-positive mosquitoes and the presence of parasites in the blood samples. For MSP-1, most of the parasites characterized in the human blood by PCR fragment size were also found afterwards in the oocyst-stage (22 of 29; MSP-2: 17 of 36). This study indicates that there is no selective transmission of distinct genotypes to the vector. In addition, the frequencies of the allelic families of both genes are similar in the blood samples and in the oocysts for the whole population.