Characterising meat consumption in Switzerland across socio-demographic, lifestyle and anthropometric groups.

Representative national data from the menuCH survey (two 24-hour dietary recalls, anthropometric measurements and a lifestyle questionnaire) were used to analyse the total average daily intake of meat and main meat categories. Energy-standardised average intake (g/1000 kcal) was calculated and its association with 12 socio-demographic, lifestyle and anthropometric variables was investigated using multivariable linear regression.

Switzerland.

Totally, 2057 participants aged 18–75 years.

Average total meat intake was 109 g/d, which included 43 g/d of processed meat, 37 g/d of red meat and 27 g/d of white meat. Energy-standardised meat intake was highest for men, the Italian-language region and the youngest age group (18–29 years). Regression results showed significantly lower total meat and red meat consumption (g/1000 kcal) for women than men. However, there were no sex-specific differences for white meat. Total meat and white meat consumption were positively associated with the 18–29 age group, compared with 30–44 years, non-Swiss compared with Swiss participants and one-parent families with children compared with couples without children. Consumption of all categories of meat showed positive associations for BMI > 25 kg/m2 compared with BMI 18·5–25 kg/m2 and for French- and Italian-language regions compared with German-language region.

The current study reveals that there are significant differences in the amounts and types of meat consumed in Switzerland, suggesting that evidence-based risks and benefits of these categories need to be emphasised more in meat consumption recommendations.

To describe and analyse the sociodemographic, anthropometric, behavioural and dietary characteristics of different types of Swiss (no-)meat eaters.

No-, low-, medium- and high-meat eaters were compared with respect to energy and total protein intake and sociodemographic, anthropometric and behavioural characteristics.

National Nutrition Survey menuCH, the first representative survey in Switzerland.

2057 participants, aged 18–75 years old, who completed two 24-h dietary recalls (24-HDR) and a questionnaire on dietary habits, sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Body weight and height were measured by trained interviewers. No-meat eaters were participants who reported meat avoidance in the questionnaire and did not report any meat consumption in the 24-HDR. Remaining study participants were assigned to the group of low-, medium- or high-meat eaters based on energy contributions of total meat intake to total energy intake (meat:energy ratio). Fifteen percentage of the participants were assigned to the low- and high-meat eating groups, and the remaining to the medium-meat eating group.

Overall, 4·4 % of the study participants did not consume meat. Compared with medium-meat eaters, no-meat eaters were more likely to be single and users of dietary supplements. Women and high-educated individuals were less likely to be high-meat eaters, whereas overweight and obese individuals were more likely to be high-meat eaters. Total energy intake was similar between the four different meat consumption groups, but no-meat eaters had lowest total protein intake.

This study identified important differences in sociodemographic, anthropometric, behavioural and dietary factors between menuCH participants with different meat-eating habits.

This cross-sectional study evaluated the dietary characteristics of snacks, the contribution of snacks to daily nutrient intake and the association of energy intake (EI) from snacks with the prevalence of nutritional inadequacy in Japanese nursery school children.

Foods and nutrients consumed in each eating occasion were assessed by 3-d dietary records. The prevalence of inadequate intake of twenty nutrients assessed by the age- and sex-specific reference values in the Japanese Dietary Reference Intakes was compared according to tertile categories of EI from snacks.

A multi-regional dietary survey based on nursery schools in Japan.

A total of 187 boys and 191 girls aged 3–6 years.

EI from snacks accounted for 19·5 % (sd 6·9) of total daily EI. Confectionaries accounted for the largest part of EI from snacks (35·3 %), followed by milk (19·5 %). Relative to their energy contribution, snacks accounted for a small proportion for all nutrients examined, except for free sugar, calcium, SFA and riboflavin. Although a higher EI from snacks was associated with favourable profiles for intakes of calcium, iron, thiamine and riboflavin, excessive intakes of free sugar and Na were more prevalent among children with a higher EI from snacks.

Although snacks are effective in meeting the requirement of some nutrients among Japanese nursery school children, snacks are generally not nutrient-dense and have an impact on excessive intake of some nutrients. There is hence room for improvement in food choices at snack time.

Dairy products are sources of protein and micronutrients important in a healthy diet. The purpose of the present analysis was to estimate consumption of dairy products by Brazilians and identify contributions of dairy products to nutrient intakes.

Dairy consumption data were obtained from 24 h dietary records. Dairy products were defined as milk (including flavoured), cheese and yoghurt. Estimates of dairy product intakes were generated for all individuals, individuals in urban and rural households and for age groups 10–18 years, 19–59 years and ≥60 years. Contributions to nutrient intakes were estimated for the total sample and sub-populations.

Nationwide cross-sectional survey, 2008–2009.

Nationally representative sample of individuals aged ≥10 years in the Individual Food Intake survey, a component of the Brazilian Household Budget Survey (n 34 003).

Among individuals aged ≥10 years, per capita intake of dairy products was 142 (se 2·1) g/d. Dairy product intake was higher among individuals in urban compared with rural areas and among groups 10–18 years and ≥60 years compared with adults aged 19–59 years. Dairy products accounted for 6·1 % of daily energy intake, 7·3 % of protein, 16·9 % of saturated fat, 11·1 % and 4·3 % of total and added sugars, respectively, and 10·2–37·9 % of daily Ca, vitamin D, P, vitamin A and K.

Dairy products were substantial contributors to daily intakes of selected nutrients of concern in Brazil, although mean daily dairy product consumption was less than a typical portion. Education efforts in Brazil to raise awareness about the nutritional role of dairy foods may serve to improve overall diet quality.

To characterize energy and macronutrient intakes in Brazil and to describe the top food items contributing to energy and macronutrient intakes.

Two non-consecutive 24 h dietary records were collected and energy and macronutrient data were adjusted for usual intake distribution. Descriptive statistics and ANOVA with the Bonferroni post hoc test were analysed using SAS version 9·1. Means and standard deviations were estimated for sex, age and income strata.

Nationwide cross-sectional survey, 2008–2009.

Nationally representative sample of individuals ≥10 years old (n32 749), excluding pregnant and lactating women (n 1254).

The average energy intake was 7958 kJ/d (1902 kcal/d) and mean energy density was 6·82 kJ/g (1·63 kcal/g). Added sugar represented 13 % of total energy intake and animal protein represented 10 %. The mean contribution of total fat to energy intake was 27 %, while the mean saturated fat contribution was 9 %. Compared with the lowest quartile of income, individuals in the highest income quartile had greater mean intakes of energy, added sugar, alcohol, animal protein, total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat and trans fat. Rice, beans, beef, bread and coffee were among the top five foods contributing most to the intakes of energy, carbohydrates, protein, fat and fibre.

In general, Brazilians’ dietary intake is compatible with a high risk of obesity and non-communicable chronic diseases, being characterized by high intakes of added sugar and saturated fat. Income may be a major determinant of diet nutritional characteristics.

To provide an overview of beverage consumption patterns using the first nationally representative survey of dietary intake in Brazil.

Beverage consumption data were obtained by 1 d food records in an individual dietary survey.

Nationwide cross-sectional survey, 2008–2009.

Nationally representative sample of individuals aged ≥10 years (n 34 003).

Beverages contributed 17·1 % of total energy consumption. Caloric coffee beverages provided the greatest level of energy overall (464 kJ (111 kcal)/d). Individuals aged 10–18 years (243 kJ (58 kcal)/d) and 19–39 years (230 kJ (55 kcal)/d) consumed a higher proportion of energy from sugar-sweetened soft drinks than individuals over this age (142 kJ (34 kcal)/d for those aged 40–59 years and 79 kJ (19 kcal)/d for those aged ≥60 years).

Overall, the contribution of beverages, particularly sugary beverages, to total energy consumption in Brazil represents an important public health challenge and is comparable with those from other countries.

To examine the patterns of consumption of foods high in solid fats and added sugars (SoFAS) in Brazil.

Cross-sectional study; individual dietary intake survey. Food intake was assessed by means of two non-consecutive food records. Foods providing >9·1 % of energy from saturated fat, or >1·3 % of energy from trans fat, or >13 % of energy from added sugars per 100 g were classified as high in SoFAS.

Brazilian nationwide survey, 2008–2009.

Individuals aged ≥10 years old.

Mean daily energy intake was 8037 kJ (1921 kcal), 52 % of energy came from SoFAS foods. Contribution of SoFAS foods to total energy intake was higher among women (52 %) and adolescents (54 %). Participants in rural areas (43 %) and in the lowest quartile of per capita family income (43 %) reported the smallest contribution of SoFAS foods to total energy intake. SoFAS foods were large contributors to total saturated fat (87 %), trans fat (89 %), added sugar (98 %) and total sugar (96 %) consumption. The SoFAS food groups that contributed most to total energy intake were meats and beverages. Top SoFAS foods contributing to saturated fat and trans fat intakes were meats and fats and oils. Most of the added and total sugar in the diet was supplied by SoFAS beverages and sweets and desserts.

SoFAS foods play an important role in the Brazilian diet. The study identifies options for improving the Brazilian diet and reducing nutrition-related non-communicable chronic diseases, but also points out some limitations of the nutrient-based criteria.

The main aim of the present study was to identify food consumption in Sri Lankan adults based on serving characteristics.

Cross-sectional study. Fruits, vegetables, starch, meat, pulses, dairy products and added sugars in the diet were assessed with portion sizes estimated using standard methods.

Twelve randomly selected clusters from the Sri Lanka Diabetes and Cardiovascular Study.

Six hundred non-institutionalized adults.

The daily intake of fruit (0·43), vegetable (1·73) and dairy (0·39) portions were well below national recommendations. Only 3·5 % of adults consumed the recommended 5 portions of fruits and vegetables/d; over a third of the population consumed no dairy products and fewer than 1 % of adults consumed 2 portions/d. In contrast, Sri Lankan adults consumed over 14 portions of starch and 3·5 portions of added sugars daily. Almost 70 % of those studied exceeded the upper limit of the recommendations for starch intake. The total daily number of meat and pulse portions was 2·78.

Dietary guidelines emphasize the importance of a balanced and varied diet; however, a substantial proportion of the Sri Lankan population studied failed to achieve such a recommendation. Nutrition-related diseases in the country may be closely correlated with unhealthy eating habits.

Few dietary surveys have been done with reference to chronic diseases, such as diabetes, in India, which is considered to be the diabetes capital of the world. We report on the dietary intake of urban adults living in Chennai, South India.

A population-based cross-sectional study.

A representative population of urban Chennai in southern India.

The study population comprised 2042 individuals aged ≥20 years selected from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiological Study (CURES). Dietary intake was measured using a validated and previously published interviewer-administered semi-quantitative meal-based FFQ.

The mean daily energy intake was 10 393 (sd 2347) kJ (male: 10953 (sd 2364) kJ v. female: 9832 (sd 233) kJ). Carbohydrates were the major source of energy (64 %), followed by fat (24 %) and protein (12 %). Refined cereals contributed to the bulk of the energy (45·8 %), followed by visible fats and oils (12·4 %) and pulses and legumes (7·8 %). However, energy supply from sugar and sweetened beverages was within the recommended levels. Intake of micronutrient-rich foods, such as fruit and vegetable consumption (265 g/d), and fish and seafoods (20 g/d), was far below the FAO/WHO recommendation. Dairy and meat products intake was within the national recommended intake.

The diet of this urban South Indian population consists mainly of refined cereals with low intake of fish, fruit and vegetables, and all of these could possibly contribute to the risk of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes in this population.

To analyse trends in energy and nutrient intakes and nutritional adequacy from 1992 to 2003.

Two consecutive cross-sectional studies carried out on random samples of the Catalan population ENCAT 1992–93 and ENCAT 2002–03. Dietary intake was assessed by means of two 24-hour recalls on non-consecutive days. Spanish food consumption tables were used. Energy and nutrient data were adjusted for intraindividual variability, and the Spanish recommend nutrient intakes (RNIs) were used in the analysis.

Catalonia region, North Eastern Spain.

Analysis is based on a total of 4701 individuals; 2641 from ENCAT 1992–93 (1210 men and 1431 women) and 2060 from ENCAT 2002–03 (954 men and 1106 women), aged 10–75 years.

No relevant changes in energy intake trends were observed, although a decrease was observed in the daily consumption of proteins (−7 g), cholesterol (−56 mg), potassium (−245 mg), vitamin A (−283 RE μg), retinoids (−71 μg), carotenoids (−1520 μg), niacin (−29 mg), folates (−15 μg), vitamin B12 (−1.6 μg) vitamin D (−0.5 μg), fibre and iron, and an increase in the consumption of calcium (+57 mg) and a slight increase in lipids and fatty acids (% energy). In general, the most outstanding trends were those of vitamin A (as a result of the decreased consumption of offal), proteins, vitamin D and B12 (due to the decreased consumption of meat and fish) and calcium (as a consequence of the increased consumption of dairy products).

No changes were observed in the energy intake of males or females; therefore, the obesity changes may possibly be attributed to changes in physical activity patterns. However, an increase in energy sources of a poorer nutritional profile has been identified, especially for between meal snacks.

Low-income households in the UK concentrate factors associated with poor record-keeping such as lower literacy, numeracy and English language skills. The present study aimed to (1) compare the validity and acceptability of three dietary survey methods against appropriate reference measures and (2) identify a method which was both valid and acceptable in low-income households.

Cross-sectional design comparing three 4-day dietary survey methods (multiple-pass 24-hour recall, food checklist and semi-weighed method) against a 4-day weighed inventory and other reference measures within subjects.

London, UK, 2001.

Low-income households were selected using a doorstep screening questionnaire in 18 of the 60 most deprived neighbourhoods in London. Results are based on 384 respondents (159 males, 225 females) aged 2–90 years in 240 households. Respondents were mainly White (48%), Black or Black British (31%) or Asian or Asian British (9%).

The dietary survey method preferred by interviewers was the 24-hour recall. Most respondents preferred the food checklist. Compared with the weighed inventory, repeat 24-hour recalls and the food checklist yielded higher estimates of energy and nutrient intakes. The semi-weighed method was least liked and yielded the lowest estimates of intake.

Based partly on evidence presented here and partly on evidence to be presented in later publications, four multiple-pass 24-hour recalls were recommended as the most appropriate method for a national study of diet and nutrition in low-income households in the UK.

The aim of the National Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) in South Africa was to determine the nutrient intakes and anthropometric status of children (1–9 years old), as well as factors that influence their dietary intake.

This was a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of all children aged 1–9 years in South Africa. A nationally representative sample with provincial representation was selected using 1996 Census information.

Of the 3120 children who were originally sampled data were obtained from 2894, a response rate of 93%.

The sociodemographic status of each household was assessed by a questionnaire. Dietary intake was assessed by means of a 24-hour recall and a food-frequency questionnaire from the caregivers of the children. Food purchasing practices were determined by means of a food procurement questionnaire. Hunger was assessed by a modified hunger scale questionnaire. Nutritional status was determined by means of anthropometric measurements: height, weight, head circumference and arm circumference.

At the national level, stunting (height-for-age below minus two standard deviations (< -2SD) from the reference median) was by far the most common nutritional disorder, affecting nearly one in five children. The children least affected (17%) were those living in urban areas. Even with regard to the latter, however, children living in informal urban areas were more severely affected (20%) compared with those living in formal urban areas (16%). A similar pattern emerged for the prevalence of underweight (weight-for-age < -2SD), with one in 10 children being affected at the national level. Furthermore, one in 10 (13%) and one in four (26%) children aged 1–3 years had an energy intake less than half and less than two-thirds of their daily energy needs, respectively. For South African children as a whole, the intakes of energy, calcium, iron, zinc, selenium, vitamins A, D, C and E, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6 and folic acid were below two-thirds of the Recommended Dietary Allowances. At the national level, data from the 24-hour recalls indicated that the most commonly consumed food items were maize, sugar, tea, whole milk and brown bread. For South African children overall, one in two households (52%) experienced hunger, one in four (23%) were at risk of hunger and only one in four households (25%) appeared food-secure.

The NFCS indicated that a large majority of households were food-insecure and that energy deficit and micronutrient deficiencies were common, resulting in a high prevalence of stunting. These results were used as motivation for the introduction of mandatory fortification in South Africa.

To determine changes in reported food frequency in adults between 1986 and 1999.

Four consecutive cross-sectional surveys.

Counties of Norrbotten and Västerbotten, Northern Sweden.

The Northern Sweden MONICA (Monitoring of Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease) population, four independent cross-sectional surveys in 1986, 1990, 1994 and 1999. Randomly selected age-stratified samples of the population aged 25–64 years. Analysis is based on 2982 males and 3087 females who completed an 84-item food-frequency questionnaire.

Between 1986 and 1999, average reported consumption of 3%-fat milk decreased from 42 to 7 intakes month-1 in men and from 28 to 4 intakes month-1 in women. Reported use of 1.5%-fat milk increased from 6 to 27 intakes month-1 in men and from 6 to 24 in women. Monthly intakes of potatoes and root vegetables decreased from 38 to 27 in men and from 39 to 32 in women. Consumption of pasta increased from 4 to 7 intakes month-1 in both sexes. Intakes of solid fats with 80% fat content dropped from 92 to 62 per month in men and from 78 to 52 per month in women, whereas use of 40%-fat spread increased from 12 to 22 intakes month-1 in men and from 5 to 26 in women. Monthly intakes of vegetable oil increased from 3 to 12 in men and from 3 to 15 in women. The percentage of overweight or obese individuals (body mass index >25 kg m-2) increased from 52 to 65% in men and from 41 to 52% in women (P for linear trend in all these changes, <0.001).

Our data indicate reduced consumption of foods with a high content of saturated fats. In spite of that, there is an unbroken trend towards increased obesity.

Intake of sugars is restricted in most international food guides. However, in recent recommendations quantified limits of added sugars intake have not been given, although deemed necessary by those who criticised the recommendations.

Two approaches to derive a scientifically based quantified limit of added sugars intake for German children and adolescents are suggested. For the first dietary survey approach, 5120 three-day weighed dietary records from the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Designed (DONALD) Study were used. Added sugars intakes in records of high vs. low dietary quality, measured by a nutrient intake score, were compared. For the second approach, a total dietary concept for German children and adolescents developed and evaluated by the Research Institute of Child Nutrition – the Optimised Mixed Diet – was used.

Whereas in the latter dietary concept an added sugars intake of about 6% of energy intake is tolerated, the dietary survey approach resulted in only small differences between high and low dietary quality, with a median added sugars intake of 12% of energy in records with high dietary quality.

A reasonable dietary quality is possible within higher ranges of added sugars intake than derived from the dietary concept approach. Therefore we suggest a range of intake of added sugars for German children and adolescents, from 6% to 12% of energy.