I have been a die-hard fan of the band Blue Öyster Cult since a friend loaned me a copy of The Revolution by Night in the seventh grade. Donald Roeser (a.k.a. Buck Dharma) is, in my opinion, one of the most underrated guitarists in rock-and-roll history. Although many people might not recognize the name, they probably know his best-known song, “(Don’t Fear) the Reaper.” It was used in the original Halloween movie, and later—more prominently—during the opening credits of the television adaptation of Stephen King’s The Stand. It continues to enjoy steady rotation on classic rock radio, and experienced something of a renaissance at the turn of the millennium after being featured in the classic Saturday Night Live sketch “More Cowbell” starring Will Ferrell and Christopher Walken.

This chapter examines the role of apocalyptic thought during the Renaissance, which was marked by both continuity with medieval apocalypticism and innovation. It includes consideration of its impact on sober humanist scholarship, fierce Reformation debates regarding the papacy, apocalyptic optimism associated with exploration and missionary expansion in the New World, and esoteric speculation about the figure of Enoch.

Over the sweep of (Christian) history, the Apostle Paul has been variously perceived. Whatever else one might know of or think about Paul, by virtue of the fact that thirteen of the twenty-seven documents in the New Testament bear his name, he is widely known as a (skilled) writer (of letters). The purpose of this essay is to orient readers to and to guide readers through the Pauline Letters. Following a succinct introduction to Paul the letter writer, his letters are considered in the following order: Galatians, Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, 1-2 Thessalonians, Philippians, Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians, Titus, 1 Timothy, and 2 Timothy. A brief conclusion follows this contextual, non-chronological treatment of the Pauline Letter corpus, meant both to facilitate and to commend a reading of the letters themselves.

The twelfth-century abbot Joachim of Fiore numbers among the most important and influential Christian apocalyptic writers of the Middle Ages. This chapter explores the contours of Joachim’s ideas about the patterns of history, situating him and his works within the broader apocalyptic “revivalism” of the twelfth century.

In the broad scope of Western Literature, the Bible fits squarely within what is called Ancient Near Eastern literature. This article surveys the literature of antiquity by examining three separate pieces from three separate cultural contexts. The Gilgamesh Epic represents the literature of a large and affluent Mesopotamian empire. The Baal Cycle considers a serial poem from the small but influential city-state of Ugarit in northwestern Syria. The Mesha Stele, or Moabite Stone, stands for a single literary piece from the small and relatively provincial kingdom of Moab. Each of these documents is summarized with an eye toward literary finesse and the fluidity of texts. The larger question of how to define literature based on such diverse exemplars as these is also raised, with the understanding that literature was written to be shared. Ancient texts, including the Bible, are misunderstood when they are treated as final forms.

The essay contributes to the scholarly conversation about apocalyptic literature by emending the definition of the genre to take into account the ancient rhetorical techniques the apocalyptic authors use, namely, vivid visual rhetoric. The essay considers the facets of genre, audience, and style, three of the literary elements of ancient apocalyptic literature essential for understanding the Biblical texts. The heart of the essay looks at the main texts of apocalyptic literature in the Bible, Daniel, Mark 13, and Revelation. In looking at them the focus is on storytelling, why the authors told the story in a certain way and what effects this mode of communication might have had on each audience’s political, economic, and social outlook. The discussion about the Biblical materials paves the way for thinking about the way they are used in art, contemporary literature, media, politics, and even religious pilgrimage sights.

Genesis-Kings stands amid three key approaches to the Bible: quest for symbolic/allegorical meaning (Philo to Middle Ages); quest for factual history (Luther to ca. 1970s and “the collapse of history”); quest for literary artistry/meaning (esp. since James Muilenburg, 1968). Gen-Kgs emerges as a narrative with historical components, and triple focus: (i) human origins, (ii) Israel and Judah, a narrative matching that of other nations, and (iii) primarily a narrative of the human heart. Following literary convention, explicit emphasis on the heart occurs at the beginning (hearts estranged, Gen 6:5-6; 8:21), middle (listen with total heart, Deuteronomy, esp. 6:4-6), and end (Josiah’s total heart, 2 Kgs 23:25). Biblical accounts present diverse human dimensions, whether, for instance, God-like (Gen 1) or made of clay (Gen 2). Both are necessary. Abraham is more God-like than Jacob; Elijah more than Elisha. The first five books (Gen-Deut) build up towards the need to choose. The other books (Josh-Kgs) show pairs of contrasting choices: Joshua/Judges; Samuel/Saul; David/Solomon; prophets/kings; Hezekiah/Manasseh; Josiah/other kings.

This historical overview of American evangelical attitudes towards the apocalypse illustrates its consistent presence as an existential issue in the community, fueling theological debate, cultural productions, and political activism.

Together, the three biblical books Judges, Samuel, and Kings tell the larger part of the story of Israel and Judah as more-or-less independent nations on their own land. Their principal focus is on “rule,” good rule and bad rule: mostly royal rule (by kings), but also “rule” by judges and deliverers, and even by prophets. David is the key human ruler. God too “rules” in these books, but as “judge” rather than as “king.” Together with the book of Joshua, they constitute the sub-set of the Hebrew Bible called Former Prophets and the start of the historical books in an English Bible.

It is increasingly fashionable for interpreters of the Bible unfamiliar with the original languages and the relevant ancient history to pursue literary approaches. Even the legal material is commonly evaluated in literary terms. No scholarly effort is independent of fashion in the sense of a cultural trend and of idiosyncrasy in the sense of a personal bent. An often unspoken assumption is that because so much research into linguistic and historical backgrounds of the biblical texts has occurred down the centuries little scope is left to say much that is new. There is a measure of truth in this notion. Despite an abiding commitment among a coterie of German scholars, more often than not scholars pay but lip service to the longstanding historical-critical theory about the Graf-Wellhausen JEDP four source make-up of the Pentateuch. The approach’s long history illustrates the not infrequent phenomenon of a critical theory perpetuating itself even when its raison d’être has been lost sight of. It is, however, precisely a lack of confidence about uncovering new meaning in the original sources that provides a major impetus for this volume. The essays reflect the efforts of scholars who, by and large, not committing to old order ways, enable them to advance imaginative ones of looking at the Bible. The goal is to modify and reshape many preconceived notions about the contents of the Bible and also its role in selected areas of Western literature. Another aim is to stimulate further questioning on the part of the reader. There is good reason to do so. The German philosopher, Friedrich Schlegel, speaks of a classical work as one that cannot ever be fully understood, but those who are educated and who seek to enhance their education nevertheless through engagement with such a work learn more and more.

Apocalyptic thinking informs virtually every major aspect of life in the twenty-first century, the result of a shift in outlook that began in the late 1960s. This chapter examines the causes of this apocalyptic shift and its remarkable acceleration since 2001, with attention to popular culture, the resurgence of robust apocalypticism in religions both new and old, and the “illiberal revolution” and the normalization of apocalyptic thinking.

Medieval Ireland had a rich apocalyptic literature, encompassing treatments of the end-times, eschatology, and the afterlife. This chapter surveys several of the main texts, with special attention to themes that are particularly characteristic of Irish apocalyptic.

Shelley repeatedly described himself as an atheist, and yet in his poetry he frequently explored the possibility of god-like transcendent powers, divine inspiration, and prophecy. In many of his greatest poetic works (such as Mont Blanc, Ode to the West Wind, and Prometheus Unbound), Shelley frequently invokes biblical imagery to articulate essentially Christian values (hope, charity, love) while developing his own master themes of enlightened defiance, political liberty and the struggle toward self-control. In Prometheus Unbound, Shelley's Greek Titan is metaphorically “crucified” for his sacrifice to help humanity. His liberation follows a personal transformation that recalls aspects of St. Paul’s writing on self-mastery. It is unclear if Prometheus’ liberation is causally linked to his own imaginative renewal, or whether there are other forces (God, Necessity, inscrutable Powers) that are instrumental. The repeated inclination to invoke both classical and biblical writing while developing themes of personal autonomy and enlightenment is one of the most interesting aspects of Shelley's work, and one of the most representative qualities of Romantic writing more generally.

One of the great Reformation debates during Shakespeare’s lifetime focused on the nature of “repentance” as represented in the Bible. The Biblical concept embraced the idea of a turn away from error and a return to righteousness (mostly as interpreted in later translations of the Hebrew Testament) and the idea of an interior change of mind or revision of one’s attitude toward patterns of behavior (mostly in the Christian Testament likewise as interpreted in later translations). Shakespeare dramatized these ideas in histories, comedies, tragedies, and romances throughout his career. This essay focuses on the dynamics of repentance in King Lear, where turning away and changes of mind engage with competing – but also sometimes complementing and mutually reinforcing – claims of ancient pagan Stoicism and Epicureanism in regard to fate, destiny, free will, and random change.