In this issue of Animal Welfare for the first time we have included an Invited Essay. These essays are to be occasional features on contemporary welfare problems; written at the invitation of the editor and refereed. The first is by Trevor Poole, a mammal behaviour zoologist with an active interest in laboratory animal science and welfare, considering the new and controversial subject of transgenic animals. In this fast moving field relatively little thought has been given to the possible suffering which transgenic animals may be enduring for human benefit.

Transgenic animals are becoming increasingly important in laboratory animal science. They seem to offer many potential benefits for mankind particularly in the fields of immunology, teratology and our understanding of the role of specific genes in development. The advantages of using transgenic animals could be particularly important in disease control and in the production of biologically active substances. It may also be possible, by inducing a pathological condition simulating a human disease in, for example, a mouse, to avoid using a mammal higher in the phylogenetic scale which, through its closer relationship with man, might otherwise be the only available species showing the condition.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the behavioural effects of keeping circus elephants in paddocks. Therefore some species-typical behavioural characters and the occurrence of stereotyped movements were observed and compared in unshackled paddock keeping versus shackled keeping. The investigation includes 29 elephants (19 Elephas maximus, 10 Loxodonta africana) at four circuses located in Germany and in Switzerland.

The results showed that paddocks offered more freedom for comfort, social and play behaviour since such activities were observed more frequently in paddocks than in shackled keeping. Also, stereotyped movements were nearly absent in paddocks and very frequent in shackled keeping. In comparison to shackled keeping, paddocks were more suitable for the needs of elephants.

In conceptualizing animal welfare, it is useful to distinguish among three types of concepts. ‘Type 1” are single, measurable attributes. ‘Type 2’ are single attributes that cannot be measured directly but can be estimated by correctly combining various contributing attributes. ‘Type 3’ are concepts involving multiple attributes which are grouped together because they serve some common function, and whose relative importance cannot be established in an entirely objective way. Individuals who treat animal welfare as a type 1 concept may propose single, objective measures of welfare, such as longevity or levels of stress-related hormones; however, this approach rests on judgements, which are not purely objective, about the relative importance of different factors for an animal's quality of life. Studies of animal preferences and motivation are sometimes seen as an objective way to weight different attributes according to the animals’ own priorities, and thus allow animal welfare to be treated as a type 2 concept. However, numerous technical and fundamental difficulties limit our ability to do this. Animal welfare is best seen as a type 3 concept incorporating multiple attributes, with considerable consensus over certain general principles (eg that a high level of welfare implies freedom from suffering) but with value-related disagreement over how these principles should be applied. Because the various attributes cannot be combined in a purely objective way, science is limited in its ability to determine the ‘overall’ welfare of an animal and to compare welfare in disparate environments. Instead of attempting to ‘measure’ animal welfare, the role of science should be seen as identifying, rectifying and preventing welfare problems.

A test system previously described by Blom et al (1993) was used to investigate the preference of the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) with respect to light intensity in their cage, by comparing a standard transparent rodent cage with three cages darkened by either 25, 50 or 75 per cent. The ten animals included in the test spent most of their time in the cages that were darkened by 50 and 75 per cent, thus relatively avoiding the standard cage. Preference was mainly determined by visits longer than 15min and was therefore possibly associated with sleeping behaviour. Food and water consumption were not restricted to the preferred cages.

These results imply that gerbils should be housed preferably in cages that allow sheltering in relatively dark places. For this purpose, placing shelter objects in the cage should be considered.

Whaling continues despite a global moratorium, and the methods of slaughter used are a controversial welfare issue. If a whale is not killed instantly by an explosive harpoon, the Japanese use electric lances as a secondary killing device.

Video footage was obtained which documented the sequence of events in Japanese whaling operations, including the harpooning and application of electric lances to seven whales. A minimum time to death of each whale was estimated. To achieve immediate insensibility using electrical stunning, the electrodes must span the brain. This video revealed that electrodes tend to be placed between the pectoral and dorsal fins, and on the same side of the whale. In this case only a small proportion of current would pass through the brain, and ventricular fibrillation is unlikely. Previous work has shown that the currents used were likely to be 50-100 times too small to cause cardiac fibrillation or cerebral dysfunction.

A humane death cannot be achieved with inappropriate placement of lances and inadequate current application. A more effective secondary killing method is necessary.

The behaviour of two groups of sheep was observed when they were placed in a pen on wooden slats and/or on straw bedding for 48h. When sheep were placed in the pen and not given a choice of slats and straw, the proportion of scans spent standing and lying by one group of sheep were not affected by floor surface, whereas another group lay down more on the straw than on the slats during the first 24h in the pen. There was more movement when on straw than on slats. When given a choice of either slats or straw for 48h, the sheep spent more than half of the scans on straw. The study showed that sheep show a preference for lying down on straw compared with wooden slats. However, sheep will lie down on wooden slats. Although straw is, quite rightly, recommended as a suitable surface for lying, there was little evidence in this study that slats provide an unsuitable surface for a slaughterhouse lairage pen.

It is generally accepted that to carry out certain trials or procedures, particularly metabolism or digestibility studies, it is necessary to house animals singly, often in sterile metal cages which differ greatly from the animal's normal living accommodation. The lack of choice, mental and physical stimulation and general ‘creature comforts’ increases the stress of isolation.

The design of the buildings at the Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition aim to ameliorate these unsatisfactory conditions and provide environmental enrichment, freedom of choice and mental and physical stimulation, in housing as similar as possible to the normal housing of domestic pets.

The New Zealand Animal Welfare Advisory Committee - a body similar in status and function to the UK Farm Animal Welfare Council, but covering all domesticated animals - has, over the years, published a number of Codes of Recommendations and Minimum Standards for the Welfare of Animals.

It is estimated that, on average, some 30 per cent of dairy cows in the UK become lame each year. This common disease not only causes pain and distress to the cows themselves, it is also an economic drain on the whole dairy industry.

Dogs make wonderful companions but unfortunately strays are a problem in most urban and many rural environments. Stray dogs may bite; they cause problems of health and hygiene and are an obvious traffic hazard. Moreover, the strays suffer from injury, disease and sometimes inhumane methods of control. The World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) has produced a written guide and video cassette to assist government, municipalities and animal control professionals to achieve effective stray dog control programmes. Their main recommendations are that authorities should implement registration, identification, neutering and education schemes. The video touches on the problem of rabies in countries where it is endemic. WSPA argues for a vaccination programme, as general euthanasia of strays disrupts the stray dog population, increases dog movements and thus increases the risk of spreading the disease. The guide and video compliment each other with the video acting as a useful introduction and outline of WSPA's initiative. The written guide, however, is more informative and practical and includes a series of annexes on, for example: dog control, dog identification systems, housing systems and suggested legislative provisions. WSPA has also put together a conference and practical training programme to help launch their initiative with interested governments.

In 1987 Foundation Research 3R was established in Switzerland to promote research on alternative methods in animal experimentation, ie reduction, refinement and replacement. The Foundation, which is funded in equal parts by contribution from Interpharma Switzerland and the Swiss Federal Veterinary Office, has, over the years, initiated some 42 research projects - of which 35 have been completed to date. In 1994 it started publishing a quarterly newsletter 3R-Info-Bulletin. The first issue (June 1994) covered the history and organization of the Foundation; the second (September 1994) describes a validation study for in vitro production of monoclonal antibodies; and the third (December 1994) covers the scientific activities on behalf of Foundation Research 3R by the late Professor G Zbinden of Zurich.

In 1992 the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) was asked by the Agriculture Departments of Great Britain to consider the welfare of turkeys being reared for the table and to make recommendations to Ministers. Accordingly a FAWC Working Group was set up; taking evidence from numerous interested parties, considering the technical literature and visiting a number of turkey production sites.

Today ‘s Poultry Industry: The Inside Story is a short booklet published by the Farm Animal Welfare Network (previously Chicken's Lib) and the National Society Against Factory Farming. The booklet contains chapters on: battery hens, broiler chickens, turkeys, ducks and ostriches. As well as discussing the traditional areas of egg or meat production and slaughter methods, it also includes the welfare of breeding stock - a group of animals not so often considered. Unfortunately one area omitted is that of religious slaughter.

Many farm animals are routinely tail-docked and/or castrated or debeaked. The numbers of these mutilation operations - especially the castrations - have dropped over the last decade or so. However, it still seems - or it is still believed - that some of the current systems of intensive husbandry, ie the fattening of pigs and the group-rearing of broiler poultry for the table, can only be carried out if the animals are tail-docked or debeaked.

Veterinary surgeons, animal welfare organizations and animal shelters are being increasingly asked to advise on, treat or look after injured, diseased or orphaned wild mammals and birds. The assistance which can be given to those creatures is often limited by the lack of knowledge the potential helpers have of the basic care and management of the animals. In an attempt to provide some of this essential background knowledge, Marian Small has prepared a 40 page A4 booklet on the natural history, care and feeding of a number of common British land mammals. Details are given on the general biology of the species, on means of capture, on food and food preferences, on suitable accommodation and, to a varying degree, on injuries, first aid and common diseases. There are a number of whole page, black and white illustrations by Lynne Mustard. This volume, which has been sponsored by Intervet UK, should be most useful to those who have to deal with wildlife casualties.

Two publications recently put out by the Royal Society for the Protection of Animals (RSPCA) clearly and succinctly present many of the ethical concepts which underpin the beliefs of Western societies pro-animal lobby.