In this study, we developed an adaptive gain-scheduling algorithm for hypersonic flight vehicles operating across wide altitude-Mach number envelopes. First, we employed a gap metric-based nominal point selection algorithm to establish a linear parameter-varying (LPV) model more accurate than the traditional Jacobian linearisation method. Active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) was then applied to cope with disturbances and uncertainties, and control gains were scheduled using the Guardian maps (GM) method to adapt to the wide envelope of velocity and altitude. The simulation results demonstrate that under all operating conditions, the proposed algorithm can automatically iterate to obtain a gain-scheduling strategy that meets the flying qualities requirements. Notably, the proposed algorithm exhibited an integral of the time absolute error approximately half of that of the traditional ADRC and significantly lower than that of the GM-LQR method in the ascent phase, demonstrating its excellent control performance and robustness.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with fully electric propulsion systems mainly use lithium-based batteries. However, using fuel cells, hybrid propulsion systems are created to improve the flight time and payload capacity of the UAVs. Energy management and energy-aware path planning are important aspects to be explored in hybrid-propulsion powered UAV configurations. These facilitate optimal power distribution among energy sources and motion planning considering energy consumption, respectively. In the literature, although there are many studies on the energy management of hybrid-powered UAVs and path planning of only battery-powered UAVs, there are research gaps in energy-aware path planning of hybrid-powered UAVs. Additionally, the energy management of hybrid-powered UAVs is usually considered independent of path planning in the literature. This paper thoroughly reviews recent energy-aware path planning for small UAVs to address the listed critical challenges above, providing a new perspective and recommendations for further research. Firstly, this study evaluates the recent status of path planning, hydrogen-based UAVs, and energy management algorithms and identifies some challenges. Later, the applications of hydrogen-powered UAVs are summarised. In addition, hydrogen-based hybrid power system topologies are defined for small UAVs. Then, the path-planning algorithms are classified, and existing studies are discussed. Finally, this paper provides a comprehensive and critical assessment of the status of energy-aware path planning of UAVs, as well as detailed future work recommendations for researchers.

This paper quantifies the impacts of the airframe configuration change on the performance differences between a tube-and-wing and a blended wing body aircraft. Both are sized for a 5,000 nmi design range carrying 225 passengers, initially using the same engine. Parametric geometry is created for both concepts based on relevant public information. The tube-and-wing notional geometry is derived from the existing Boeing 767-300ER, whereas JetZero’s concept inspires the blended wing body. These geometries are optimised using computational fluid dynamics and gradient-free approaches. Drag polars for each optimised model, spanning the expected operating envelope, are generated using computational fluid dynamics simulations and multi-fidelity surrogate models. Mission analysis is performed for the blended wing body, a conventional tube-and wing variant with metallic structures, and an advanced tube-and-wing with composite structures. The results show that the blended wing body operates with 15-20% higher lift-over-drag during the cruise, 24% lower fuel burn for the design mission, and 15% reduction in ramp weight relative to the conventional tube-and-wing. These differences drop to 20% for the design mission fuel burn and 10% for the ramp weight relative to the advanced tube-and-wing. When the engines are re-sized and optimised separately for each configuration, the blended wing body demonstrates a 25% improvement in block fuel and 16% reduction in ramp weight relative to the conventional tube-and-wing, which decreases to 21% and 10% relative to the advanced tube-and-wing. In both comparisons, the fuel efficiency advantage of the blended wing body decreases as the mission range is reduced.

A three-dimensional robust nonlinear cooperative guidance law is proposed to address the challenge of multiple missiles intercepting manoeuvering targets under stringent input constraints and thruster failure. The finite-time convergence theory is used to design a distributed nonlinear sliding mode guidance law, ensuring that the system converges in finite time, with the upper limit of convergence time related to the initial state. A nonlinear sliding surface is adopted to mitigate actuator saturation issues. Then, considering thruster failure, a robust cooperative guidance law is further introduced, ensuring mission completion through the reconstruction of the guidance law. The closed-loop system is proven to be stable using Lyapunov theory, and the influence of hyperparameters on the cooperative guidance law is analysed. Additionally, the results of numerical simulations and hardware-in-the-loop experiments demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed algorithm in dealing with stringent input saturation and various disturbances.

Gaseous hydrogen chemically reacting with air in lean premixed mode yields essentially water vapour enabling to decarbonise aeronautical propulsion systems. When hydrogen fuel is produced by electrolysis, the impact on Earth is neutral on a life-cycle basis. Hydrogen fuel, combined to swirled premixed combustion mode, is a sustainable method for thermal-powered aviation. Knowledge gaps have hindered progress in the field and no laboratory-scale demonstrations have been made to date in the specific 100% H2/Air swirled premixed regime. This study describes an experiment established to: (1) demonstrate this highly swirled lean fully premixed H2/Air combustion mode and (2) -describe the underlying flame stabilisation principle. Theoretical results enable pioneering the first-to-date experimental stabilisation for these flames. Measurements with optical diagnostics including chemiluminescence and shadowgraphy direct imaging provide insights into the flame position and the flame regime. This experimental demonstration confirms that the kinematic balance between the flame displacement speed and the flow velocity is critical along with the flame-wall interaction at the bluff-body. It is shown that flashback can be mitigated. The present experiment can be replicated and utilised for application in several scientific disciplines and for advancing technologies. The experimental demonstration, regime characterisation method and mechanism description documented here open the perspective to deploy clean hydrogen combustion to decarbonise aviation with low nitrogen oxides emissions. The combination of high-swirl fully premixed H2/Air experimental data and the theoretical results are unique.

In recent years, the rapid convergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and low-altitude flight technology has driven significant transformations across various industries. These advancements have showcased immense potential in areas such as logistics distribution, urban air mobility (UAM) and national defense. By adopting the AI technology, low-altitude flight technology can achieve high levels of automation and operate in coordinated swarms, thereby enhancing efficiency and precision. However, as these technologies become more pervasive, they also raise pressing ethical or moral concerns, particularly regarding privacy, public safety, as well as the risks of militarisation and weaponisation. These issues have sparked extensive debates. In summary, while the integration of AI and low-altitude flight presents revolutionary opportunities, it also introduces complex ethical challenges. This article will explore these opportunities and challenges in depth, focusing on areas such as privacy protection, public safety, military applications and legal regulation, and will propose strategies to ensure that technological advancements remain aligned with ethical or moral principles.

The Water-Enhanced Turbofan is a promising aero engine propulsion concept that could reduce the climate impact of aviation significantly by combining the conventional Joule/Brayton cycle with a Clausius-Rankine steam cycle. One important component with a high impact on the overall performance is the condenser, a heat exchanger cooling the core exhaust for water recovery. The design conditions for the Water-Enhanced Turbofan condenser have not been analysed from a system perspective in previous studies. Therefore, these operating conditions, which can be decisive for the dimensioning of the condenser, are investigated in the present work. These operating conditions include ambient temperature variations, different cruise altitudes, maximum cruise thrust and contrail avoidance. A conceptual design engine model is set up in the Numerical Propulsion System Simulation (NPSS) framework, incorporating a multi-point design scheme. The heat exchangers are modelled using a neural network surrogate model. The results show a trade-off between engine fuel burn and the cold size frontal area of the condenser, the latter being an indication for the integrability. It is shown that high ambient temperatures pose a challenge to the condenser design, necessitating consideration of such operating conditions in new engine concepts based on heat exchange with the environment. The condenser designed for typical cruise at 15K above standard atmosphere at 35,000 ft cruise altitude, enables sustained water cycle operations down to 10,000 ft under standard day conditions. Additionally, the complete cruise segment of the design mission can be flown with sustained water cycle operations at 10K above standard atmosphere conditions. A positive side effect of the condenser sizing for hot day conditions is that the probability of contrail formation is reduced because the condenser design results in excess water recovery at colder ambient conditions.

Safe and efficient flight operations depend on effective air traffic management and the decision-making skills of air traffic control officers (ATCOs). However, managing air traffic in terminal control areas (TMAs), especially in approach control units, is challenging due to the complexity of the airspace. This is particularly evident in metroplex airspaces like the Istanbul TMA, which features multiple civil and military airports, diverse approach systems, and heavy traffic volumes, all contributing to an exceptionally complex operational environment. This study examines how experienced ATCOs perceive airspace complexity, focusing on approach control units within TMAs. Using Istanbul TMA as a case study, the research combines qualitative and quantitative methods to analyse the factors contributing to complexity. In the first phase, the Content Validity Method (CVM) is used to identify and confirm the key factors influencing airspace complexity. In the second phase, the Best-Worst Method (BWM) is applied to measure the importance of these factors. The study involves two groups of ATCOs: 40 in the first group and 20 in the second. The results reveal that ‘conflicts’ are the most critical factor affecting airspace complexity, highlighting the importance of conflict resolution in air traffic control. Other significant factors include rules and procedures, airspace design and traffic density. This study provides clear insights into the challenges of managing TMA, especially in metroplex airspace. Identifying and analysing the key factors offers valuable guidance for improving air traffic management and supporting ATCOs in making better decisions.

With developing technology, the usage areas of aircraft are constantly expanded. In aircraft designed for different missions, it is an important issue to evaluate many design possibilities and make optimum designs by taking into account many parameters that are not directly connected to each other with equal importance. In this context, issues such as safety and performance come to the fore in aircraft designs. One of the critical situations affecting flight safety is the takeoff and landing phases of the aircraft. The speed changes that occur in these stages are an important issue. In this study, takeoff speed was predicted with different machine learning algorithms using takeoff speed data of the Boeing B-737-300 type aircraft. Linear regression, support vector regression, classification and regression trees, random forest regression, Extreme Gradient Boosting algorithms were selected from machine learning algorithms for takeoff speed prediction. Base models were created with these selected algorithms and the takeoff speed was predicted by training the data. Considering the obtained results, feature engineered was applied to minimise the error values of the proposed base models. In models developed by applying feature engineered, error values were reduced and better performance was observed in takeoff speed prediction. Takeoff speed values obtained with the developed models and actual flight speed values are presented comparatively for the first time in the literature. The simulation results emphasise that the developed models can be used as an effective and alternative method for takeoff speed prediction.

To address the challenges of high-manoeuver targets and limited line-of-sight from the interceptor’s side window, this paper proposes a three-dimensional target manoeuver compensation control (TMCC) guidance law based on compensation function observe (CFO) and a method for studying the terminal guidance handover region. First, a relative model of the missile-target engagement is established. Secondly, the CFO is used to estimate the target manoeuver state, and the estimated information is fed back to the controller of the orbit control engine to make the interception more accurate. Considering the limited line of sight of the side window, the body line of sight angle is constrained by controlling the attitude control engine. Then, the problem description for solving the handover area and the definition of the terminal guidance handover area were provided, and the algorithm design for the handover area was conducted, simplifying the solving process through the concept of area substitution. Simulation results indicate that the proposed terminal guidance law offers higher interception accuracy compared to traditional proportional guidance, and effectively validates the accuracy of the handover region calculation.

For binary plug nozzle, the plug cone is exposed to high-temperature mainstream flow, making it one of the nozzle’s high-temperature components. This paper uses the Realizable k-ε turbulence model and the reverse Monte Carlo method to numerically investigate the aerodynamic and infrared radiation characteristics of the plug nozzle. Various slot cooling configurations were adopted to study the nozzle’s infrared radiation in detail. Results indicate that compared to the baseline nozzle, the plug nozzle’s performance is slightly reduced due to the decrease in effective area of flow over the plug cone. Introducing slot cooling at the rear edge provides significant infrared suppression benefits at low detection angles and notably reduces infrared radiation discrepancy with baseline nozzle at high detection angles. The cooling air from slots causes the nozzle jet to exhibit a ‘thermal layered’ feature. With the same total coolant mass flow, the ‘leading edge + trailing edge’ cooling configuration can lower the area-averaged wall temperature of the plug cone by 5.5% – 12.3%. However, its infrared radiation intensity at each detection angle on the pitch detection plane is higher than that of the ‘trailing edge’ configuration. The significance of leading-edge cooling is focused more on thermal protection for the plug. Thus, it is essential to balance coolant mass flow distribution between infrared radiation suppression and thermal protection.

The current emphasis in aerospace component development is on creating safe, reliable and cost-effective technologies. However, the intricate design of stage separation systems renders component reliability a critical factor in determining mission success or failure. One of the technical challenges involves the development of various aerospace mechanisms, such as payload separation, heavy propulsion system separation, ejection of auxiliary components and detachment of rigid components. These stage separation mechanisms commonly employ pyrotechnic devices, which, by their operational nature, impart shock to the spacecraft, potentially causing damage or adverse effects on flight instruments. Therefore, it is imperative to explore multiple viable concepts aimed at reducing shock and experimentally ascertain the impact of shock using diverse shock attenuation techniques. While existing literature primarily addresses shock attenuation with distance from the shock source, limited attention has been given to diminishing shock at the location of the shock-generating element. This study employed various shock-attenuating devices, including dampers, metallic foam structures, viscous materials and dampeners, to assess the effectiveness of shock reduction. Furthermore, the study investigated shock reduction resulting from the elimination of rigid connections, such as bolted joints, from pyro-actuated mechanisms. Through a series of experiments, a conclusive analysis was conducted to determine the approach for achieving a substantial reduction in pyro shock.

In this study, measurements and numerical analyses of the temperature distribution of exhaust gas passing through two types of mixers using a micro turbojet engine were performed to investigate the flow mixing performance based on the shape of the mixer, which mixes the bypass air and core air in a gas turbine turbofan engine. To study the mixing characteristics of the mixer, compressed air was supplied through an external duct mounted on a micro turbojet engine to simulate bypass flow, and a system in which hot gas and compressed air were mixed and ejected into the atmosphere was fabricated. A confluent-type mixer and a mixer with 8-lobed mixer channels in the form of a sine wave were used for the experiment. The exhaust gas temperature was measured based on the distance from the nozzle outlet at bypass ratios of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.4. The results showed that the lobed mixer is more effective than the confluent mixer in lowering the exhaust gas temperature as the bypass ratio increased. Numerical analysis results indicated that, in the case of the confluent mixer, flow mixing is primarily performed by shear flow owing to the velocity difference between the core gas and the bypass air. In contrast, in the case of a lobed mixer, flow mixing is achieved through rotational motion and transverse flow. In addition, when the number of lobe channels increased from 8 to 12, the rotational motion increased and the mixing performance improved. Furthermore, infrared signal calculation results confirmed that, as the number of lobe channels increased, improved flow mixing effectively reduced the infrared signal. We conclude that this study helps understand the mixing characteristics of the flow according to the shape of the mixer at various bypass ratios and determine their effect on the characteristics of the infrared signal.

Aiming to address the issue of low accuracy in model predictions obtained from fitting frequency domain response curves for small unmanned helicopters during the process of modeling their flight dynamics, this study proposes a system identification algorithm based on the combination of weighted least squares and improved grey wolf optimisation algorithm. The algorithm utilises the weighted least squares method to obtain the initial model structure, optimises the initial model parameters using the improved grey wolf optimisation algorithm, and enhances the local search and global optimisation ability of the grey wolf optimisation algorithm by introducing an improved grey wolf subgrouping rule, nonlinear convergence factor and dynamic cooperative rule. Ultimately, this approach establishes a dynamic model for small, unmanned helicopters. The identified model is validated using flight test data, with findings demonstrating that this method achieves higher accuracy in model identification and better fits to frequency domain response curves, thus providing a more accurate reflection of the flight dynamics of small unmanned helicopters.

This paper presents a study of the effects of the durability and level of energy storage technology on energy management strategies and the performance of hybrid electric turboprops. The results highlight the key role of battery energy density on the durability of the battery pack and the viability of the concept of hybrid electric aircraft. Additionally, the trade-off between zero-day environmental compatibility and battery lifetime is identified, caused by the size of the pack. The effective energy density would decrease with the aging of the cells, leaving a significant inert mass and increasing fuel consumption. Optimal energy management strategies are suggested in light of this new information. Higher specific energy of the pack would mitigate this aspect, along with a reduction in fuel consumption and ${\rm{N}}{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{x}}}$ emissions. Indeed, the improvement of environmental compatibility was found to be nonlinear with a positive rate, suggesting high returns in investing in great improvements in energy density over a gradual increase. This result relates to the results of the statistical technological forecast presented in this study, which, without an increase in funding, predicts the availability of the specific energy required to match the fuel-only baseline in the 2040–2050 decade.

The enhancement of jet engine components may result in the expansion of the established design space. In particular, the trend towards short and therefore highly aggressive inter compressor ducts (ICD) extends the traditional design space. The potential for fuel savings resulting from a reduction in engine weight is in contrast to the emergence of a more complex flow field. Many studies consider the secondary flow system of highly aggressive ICDs at the design point, but there is a lack of off-design considerations. To fill this gap, the present study investigates in detail the off-design performance of the new German Aerospace Center (DLR) test case. Firstly, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of different typical operating points allow detailed considerations of the flow field under off-design conditions. Secondly, a variation of the inlet conditions describes the sensitivity of highly aggressive ICDs to different low-pressure compressor operating points. Finally, the comparison of the CFD stagnation pressure loss with the loss predicted by a preliminary off-design method validates the use of traditional off-design prediction during the preliminary design of highly aggressive ICDs.

In this article, we delve into the optimal scheduling challenge for many-to-many on-orbit services, taking into account variations in target accessibility. The scenario assumes that each servicing satellite is equipped with singular or multiple service capabilities, tasked with providing on-orbit services to multiple targets, each characterised by distinct service requirements. The mission’s primary objective is to determine the optimal service sequence, orbital transfer duration and on-orbit service time for each servicing satellite, with the ultimate goal of minimising the overall cost. We frame the optimal scheduling dilemma as a time-related colored travelling salesman problem (TRCTSP) and propose an enhanced firefly algorithm (EFA) to address it. Finally, experimental results across various scenarios validate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed algorithm. The principal contribution of this work lies in the modeling and resolution of the many-to-many on-orbit service challenge, considering accessibility variations — a domain that has, until now, remained unexplored.

The presented research investigates the impact of interference on the performance of aircraft Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers with a specific focus on the behaviour of Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) position quality indicators. Several experiments were performed with different aircraft types, such as Airbus, Boeing, Beechcraft King Air B350 or Tecnam, and using various intensities of GNSS jamming. The behaviour of various quality indicators, such as the Navigation Integrity Category, Navigation Accuracy Category, Source Integrity Level and System Design Assurance transmitted in different types of ADS-B messages, is analysed. We investigate not only situations where the quality indicators drop to zero, but also the complete evolution of the changes in the indicators as a function of the increasing power of the jamming signal. Based on the analysis of changes in the ADS-B quality indicators, the estimation of the most likely interference signal power required to discontinue the tracking of an already acquired GPS L1 Coarse/Acquisition signal is made. Additionally, the interference signal power to prevent re-acquisition is also estimated. The findings improve the understanding of interference effects and can support the development of robust interference mitigation techniques in aviation applications.

This paper considers the guidance issue for attackers against aircraft with active defense in a two-on-two engagement, which includes an attacker, a protector, a defender and a target. A cooperative line-of-sight guidance scheme with prescribed performance and input saturation is proposed utilising the sliding mode control and line-of-sight guidance theories, which guarantees that the attacker is able to capture the target with the assistance of the protector remaining on the line-of-sight between the defender and the attacker in order to intercept the defender. A fixed-time prescribed performance function and first-order anti-saturation auxiliary variable are designed in the game guidance strategy to constrain the overshoot of the guidance variable and satisfy the requirement of an overload manoeuver. The proposed guidance strategy alleviates the influence of external disturbance by implementing a fixed-time observer and the chattering phenomenon caused by the sign function. Finally, nonlinear numerical simulations verify the cooperative guidance strategies.