Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T02:08:06.413Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Aggression and violence around the world: A model of CLimate, Aggression, and Self-control in Humans (CLASH)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 May 2016

Paul A. M. Van Lange ,
Maria I. Rinderu  and
Brad J. Bushman
Paul A. M. Van Lange
Affiliation:
Department of Applied and Experimental Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. [email protected]
Maria I. Rinderu
Affiliation:
Department of Applied and Experimental Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. [email protected]://amsterdamcooperationlab.com/belarinderu/
Brad J. Bushman
Affiliation:
School of Communication, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH [email protected]://u.osu.edu/bushman.20/ Department of Communication Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Worldwide there are substantial differences within and between countries in aggression and violence. Although there are various exceptions, a general rule is that aggression and violence increase as one moves closer to the equator, which suggests the important role of climate differences. While this pattern is robust, theoretical explanations for these large differences in aggression and violence within countries and around the world are lacking. Most extant explanations focus on the influence of average temperature as a factor that triggers aggression (The General Aggression Model), or the notion that warm temperature allows for more social interaction situations (Routine Activity Theory) in which aggression is likely to unfold. We propose a new model, CLimate, Aggression, and Self-control in Humans (CLASH), that helps us to understand differences within and between countries in aggression and violence in terms of differences in climate. Lower temperatures, and especially larger degrees of seasonal variation in climate, call for individuals and groups to adopt a slower life history strategy, a greater focus on the future (vs. present), and a stronger focus on self-control. The CLASH model further outlines that slow life strategy, future orientation, and strong self-control are important determinants of inhibiting aggression and violence. We also discuss how CLASH differs from other recently developed models that emphasize climate differences for understanding conflict. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and societal importance of climate in shaping individual and societal differences in aggression and violence.

Keywords

aggressionclimateseasonal variationself-controltemperaturetime orientationviolence
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 40 , 2017 , e75
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L. & Syme, S. L. (1993) Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist 49:15–24. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.49.1.15.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2013) Cold climates demand more intertemporal self-control than warm climates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36:481–82. doi: 10.1017/S0140525xi2000022.Google Scholar
Allen, J., Nicholas, S., Salisbury, H. & Wood, M. (2003) Nature of burglary, vehicle and violent crime. In: Crime in England and Wales 2001/2002: Supplementary volume, Home Office Statistical Bulleting 01/03, ed. Flood-Page, C. & Taylor, J., pp. 41–68. Home Office.Google Scholar
Andersen, P. A., Lustig, M. W. & Andersen, J. F. (1990) Changed in latitude, changes in attitude – The relationship between climate and interpersonal communication predispositions. Communication Quarterly 38:291–311. doi: 10.1080/01463379009369768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, C. A. (1987) Temperature and aggression: Effects on quarterly, yearly, and city rates of violent and nonviolent crime. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:1161–73. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1161.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. (1989) Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on the occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin 106:74–96. doi: 10.1037/00332909.106.1.74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, C. A. (2001) Heat and violence. Current Directions in Psychological Science 10:33–38. doi: 10.111/1467/8721.00109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Anderson, K. B. (1996) Violent crime rate studies in philosophical context: A destructive approach to heat and southern culture of violence effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70:740–56. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.740.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Anderson, K. B. (1998) Temperature and aggression: Paradox, controversy, and a (fairly) clear picture. In: Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy, ed. Geen, R. & Donnerstein, E., pp. 247–98. Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/b978-012278805-5/50011-0.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2002) Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology 53:27–51. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Bushman, B. J. & Groom, R. W. (1997) Hot years and serious and deadly assault: Empirical tests of the heat hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73:1213–23. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1213.Google Scholar
Aschoff, J. (1981) Annual rhythms in man. In: Handbook of behavioral neurobiology: Biological rhythms, vol. 4, ed. Aschoff, J., pp. 475–87. Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Balliet, D. & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2013) Trust, punishment, and cooperation across 18 societies: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science 8:363–79. doi: 10.1177/1745691613488533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, R. A. (1972) Aggression as a function of ambient temperature and prior anger arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21(2):183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, R. A. & Bell, P. A. (1975) Aggression and heat: Mediating effects of prior provocation and exposure to an aggressive model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31:825–32. doi: 10.1037/h0076647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, R. A. & Bell, P. A. (1976) Aggression and heat: The influence of ambient temperature, negative affect, and a cooling drink on physical aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33:245–55. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.33.3.245.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., Van Lange, P. A. M., Ahmad, N. & Lishner, D. A. (2003) Altruism and helping behavior. In: Sage handbook of social psychology, ed. Hogg, M. A. & Cooper, J., pp. 279–95. Sage.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F. & Tice, D. M. (1994) Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Park, J. & Ainsworth, S. E. (2013) Individual identity and freedom of choice in the context of environmental and economic conditions. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36:484. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X13000058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F. & Tierney, J. (2011) Willpower: Rediscovering the greatest human strength. Penguin Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. & Draper, P. (1991) Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development 62(4):647–70.Google Scholar
Blanford, J. I., Blanford, R. G., Crane, R. G., Mann, M. E., Paaijmans, K. P., Scheiber, K. V. & Thomas, M. B. (2013) Implications of temperature variation for malaria parasite development across Africa. Scientific Reports 3:1300. doi: 10.1038/srep01300.Google Scholar
Boniwell, I. & Zimbardo, P. G. (2004) Balancing time perspective in pursuit of optimal functioning. In: Positive psychology in practice, ed. Linley, P. A. & Joseph, S., pp. 165–74. Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780470939338.ch10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botchkavar, E., Marshell, I. H., Rocque, M. & Posick, C. (2015) The importance of parenting in the development of self-control in boys and girls: Results from a multinational study of youth. Journal of Criminal Justice 34:133–41. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.02.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brearley, H. C., ed. (1932) Homicide in the United States. Patterson-Smith.Google Scholar
Brislin, R. W. & Kim, E. S. (2003) Cultural diversity in people's understanding and use of time. Applied Social Psychology 52:363–82. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bugenthal, D. B. & Beaulieu, D. A. (2004) Maltreatment among disabled children: A bio-social-cognitive approach. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 31:129–64.Google Scholar
Burghardt, G. P. (2013) Play, animals, and resources: The need for a rich (and challenging) comparative environment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36:484–85. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X1300006X.Google Scholar
Burke, M., Hsiang, S. M. & Miguel, E. (2015) Climate and conflict. Annual Review of Economics 7:577–617.Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J., Giancola, P. R., Parrott, D. J. & Roth, R. M. (2012) Failure to consider future consequences increases the effects of alcohol on aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48:591–95. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.11.013.Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J., Wang, M. C. & Anderson, C. A. (2005) Is the curve relating temperature to aggression liner or curvilinear? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89:62–66. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.62.Google Scholar
Buss, A. H. (1961) The psychology of aggression. Wiley.Google Scholar
Carlsmith, J. M. & Anderson, C. A. (1979) Ambient temperature and the occurrence of collective violence: A new analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:337–44. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.337.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency (2014) The world factbook, 52nd edition. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/whatsnew.html.Google Scholar
Chen, E., Matthews, K. A. & Boyce, W. T. (2002) Socioeconomic differences in children's health: How and why do these relationships change with age? Psychological Bulletin 128:295–329. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chisholm, J. S. (1999) Attachment and time preference: Relations between early stress and sexual behavior in a sample of American university women. Human Nature 10:51–83. doi: 10.1007/s12110-999-1001-1.Google Scholar
Cohen, D. (1996) Law, social policy, and violence: The impact of regional cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70:961–78. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.961.Google Scholar
Cohen, D. (1998) Culture, social organization, and patterns of violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75:408–19. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, D. & Nisbett, R. E. (1994) Self-protection and the culture of honor: Explaining Southern homicide. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20:551–67. doi: 10.1177/0146167294205012.Google Scholar
Cohen, D. & Nisbett, R., eds. (1996) Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, D., Nisbett, R. E., Bowdle, B. F. & Schwartz, N. (1996) Insult, aggression, and the Southern culture of honor: An “experimental ethnography.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70:945–60. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.945.Google Scholar
Cohen, D., Vandello, J., Puente, S. & Rantilla, A. (1999) “When you call me that, smile!” How norms of politeness, interaction styles, and aggression work together in Southern culture. Social Psychology Quarterly 62:257–75. doi: 10.2307/2695863.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. L. (1941) The geography of crime. Annals of the American Academic of Political and Social Science 217:29–37. doi: 10.1177/00271624121700105.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. E. & Felson, M. (1979) Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity theory approach. American Sociological Review 44:588–608. doi: 10.2307/2094589.Google Scholar
Cohn, E. G. (1990) Weather and violent crime: A reply to Perry and Simpson, 1987. Environment and Behavior 22:280–94. doi: 10.177/00139165590222006.Google Scholar
Cohn, E. G. & Rotton, J. (1997) Assault as a function of time and temperature: A moderator-variable time-series analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72:1322–34. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1322.Google Scholar
deFronzo, J. (1984) Climate and crime. Environment and Behavior 16:185–210. doi: 10.1177/0013916584162003.Google Scholar
Denson, T. F., Capper, M. M., Oaten, M., Friese, M. & Schofield, T. P. (2011) Self-control training decreases aggression in response to provocation in aggressive individuals. Journal of Research in Personality 42:252–56. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.001.Google Scholar
DeWall, C. N., Lynch, K. R. & Renzetti, C. M. (2016) Love and hurt: Why we aggress against loved ones. In: Aggression and violence: A social psychological perspective, ed. Bushman, B. J., pp. 259–74. Routledge.Google Scholar
Dexter, E. G. (1899) Conduct and the weather. Psychological Monographs 11:1–103.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A. & Coie, J. D. (1987) Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53(6):1146–58.Google Scholar
Doleac, J. L. & Sanders, N. J. (2013) Under the cover of darkness: How ambient light influences criminal activity. Working paper. Frank Batten School of Leadership and Public Policy, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Douglas, S. & Rawles, J. (1999) Latitude-related changes in the amplitude of annual mortality rhythm: The biological equator in man. Chronobiology International 16:199–212. doi: 10.3109/07420529909019086.Google Scholar
Dunkel, C. S. & Mathes, E. (2011) The effect of individual differences and manipulated life expectancies on the willingness to engage in sexual coercion. Evolutionary Psychology 9:588–99. doi: 10.1555/jep.10.2012.3.3.Google Scholar
Dunkel, C. S., Mathes, E. & Decker, M. (2010a) Behavioral flexibility in life history strategies: Evidence or the role of life expectancy. Journal of Cultural, Evolutionary, and Social Psychology 4:51–61. doi: 10.1037/h0099301.Google Scholar
Dunkel, C. S., Mathes, E. & Papini, D. R. (2010b) The effect of life expectancy on aggression and generativity: A life history perspective. Evolutionary Psychology 8:492–505. doi: 10.1037/h0099177.Google Scholar
Durante, K. M., Griskevicius, V., Redden, J. P. & White, A. E. (2015) Spending on daughters versus sons in economic recessions. Journal of Consumer Research 42:435–57. doi: 10.1093/jcr/ucv023.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., Pettit, G. S. & Woodward, L. (2003) Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? Child Development 74:801–21. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00569.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Figueredo, A. J., Brumbach, B. H. & Schlomer, G. L. (2009) Fundamental dimensions of environmental risk: The impact of harsh versus unpredictable environments on the evolution and development of life history strategies. Human Nature 20(2):204–68. doi: 10.1007/s12110-009-9063-7.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., McFayden-Ketchum, S., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S. & Bates, J. E. (1999) Quality of early family relationships and individual differences in the timing of pubertal maturation in girls: A longitudinal test of an evolutionary model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77:387–401. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.387.Google Scholar
Epstein, P. R. (1999) Climate and health. Science 285:347–48. doi: 10.1126/science.285.5426.347.Google Scholar
Falk, G. J. (1952) The influence of the seasons on the crime rate. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology & Police Science 43:199–213. doi: 10.2307/1139262.Google Scholar
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (2015) Uniform Crime Reports. U. S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Felson, M., ed. (1998) Crime and everyday life, 2nd edition. Pine Forge Press.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. & Dyck, D. (2012) Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the General Aggression Model. Aggression and Violent Behavior 17:220–28. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2012.02.007.Google Scholar
Fincher, C. L. & Thornhill, R. (2012) Parasite-stress promotes ingroup assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35:61–119. doi: 10.1017/s0140525x11000021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fincher, C. L., Thornhill, R., Murray, D. R. & Schaller, M. (2008) Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism/collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 275:1640. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X11000021.Google Scholar
Finkel, E. J., DeWall, C. N., Slotter, E., Oaten, M. B. & Foshee, V. A. (2009) Self-regulatory failure and intimate partner violence perpetration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97:483–99. doi: 10.1037/a0015433.Google Scholar
Frankenhuis, W. E., Panchanathan, K. & Nettle, D. (2016) Cognition in hash and unpredictable environments. Current Opinion in Psychology 7:76–80. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.08.011.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, M. R. & Hirschi, T., eds. (1990) A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Delton, A. W. & Robertson, T. E. (2011) The influence of mortality and socioeconomic status on risk and delayed rewards: A life history theory approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100:1015–26. doi: 10.1037/a0022403.Google Scholar
Guernier, V., Hochberg, M. E. & Guégan, J-F. (2004) Ecology drives worldwide distribution of human diseases. PLoS Biology 2(6):e141. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020141.Google Scholar
Gurven, M. & Kaplan, H. (2007) Longevity among hunter-gathers: A cross-cultural examination. Population and Development Review 33:321–65. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4457.2007.00171.x.Google Scholar
Haertzen, C., Buxton, K., Covi, L. & Richards, H. (1993) Seasonal changes in rule infractions among prisoners: A preliminary test of the temperature-aggression hypothesis. Psychological Reports 72:195–200. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1993.72.1.195.Google Scholar
Hannah, K. (2004) Summer island: A novel. Ballantine Books.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J. & Norenzayan, A. (2010) The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33:61–83. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X0999152X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, B., Caspi, A., Mofitt, T. E. & Silva, P. A. (1996) Temperamental and familial predictors of violent and nonviolent criminal convictions: Age 3 to age 18. Developmental Psychology 32:614–23. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.32.4.614.Google Scholar
Hill, K. (1993) Life history theory and evolutionary anthropology. Evolutionary Anthropology 2:78–88. doi: 10.1002/evan.1360020303.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G., ed. (2001) Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations, 2nd edition. Sage.Google Scholar
Hsiang, S. M., Burke, M. & Miguel, E. (2013) Quantifying the influence of climate on human conflict. Science 341(6151):. doi: 10.1126/science.1235367.Google Scholar
Inhorn, M. C. & Brown, P. J. (1990) The anthropology of infectious disease. Annual Review of Anthropology 19:87–117. doi: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.19.1.89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joireman, J., Anderson, J. & Strathman, A. (2003) The aggression paradox: Understanding links among aggression, sensation seeking, and the consideration of future consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:1287–302. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1287.Google Scholar
Joireman, J. A., Balliet, D., Sprott, D., Spangenberg, E. & Schultz, J. (2008) Consideration of future consequences, ego-depletion, and self-control: Support for distinguishing between CFC-Immediate and CFC-Future sub-scales. Personality and Individual Differences 45:15–21. doi: 10.101/2008.02.011.Google Scholar
Kaplan, H. S. & Gangestad, S. W. (2005) Life History Theory and evolutionary psychology. In: Handbook of evolutionary psychology, ed. Buss, D. M., pp. 68–95. Wiley.Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & MacFarlane, S. W. (1984) Ambient temperature and horn-honking: A field study of the heat/aggression relationship. Environment and Behavior 18:179–91. doi: 10.1177/0013916586182002.Google Scholar
Kim, K., Smith, P. K. & Palermiti, A. L. (1997) Conflict in childhood and reproductive development. Evolution and Human Behavior 18:109–42. doi: 10.1016/s1090-5138(96)00114-6.Google Scholar
Kong, D. T. (2013) Examining a climate-economic contextualization of generalized social trust mediated by uncertainty avoidance. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 44:574–88. doi: 10.1177/0022022112466700.Google Scholar
Kortenkamp, K. V. & Moore, C. F. (2006) Time, uncertainty, and individual differences in decisions to cooperate in resource dilemmas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32:603–15. doi: 10.1177/0146167205284006.Google Scholar
Kotchick, B. A., Shaffer, A., Forehand, R. & Miller, K. S. (2001) Adolescent sexual risk behavior: A multi-system perspective. Clinical Psychology Review 21:493–519. doi: 10.1016/s0272-7358(99)00070-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krahé, B. (2017) Violence against women. In: Aggression and violence: A social psychological perspective, ed. Bushman, B. J., pp. 241–258. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kruger, D. J., Reischl, T. & Zimmerman, M. W. (2008) Time perspective as a mechanism for functional developmental adaptation. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology 2:1–22. doi: 10.1037/h0099336.Google Scholar
Landes, D. S. (1998) The wealth and poverty of nations. Norton.Google Scholar
Lauritsen, J. L. (1994) Explaining race and gender differences in adolescent sexual behavior. Social Forces 72:859–84. doi: 10.2307/2579784.Google Scholar
Leffingwell, A., ed. (1892) Illegitimacy and the influence of the seasons upon conduct. Scribner.Google Scholar
Levine, R., ed. (2006) A geography of time. The temporal misadventures of a social psychologist, or how every culture keeps time just a little bit differently. Oneworld.Google Scholar
Levine, R. V. & Norenzayan, (1999) The pace of life in 31 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30:178–205. doi: 10.1177/0022022199030002003.Google Scholar
Levine, R. V., West, L. J. & Reis, H. T. (1980) Perceptions of time and punctuality in the United States and Brazil. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38:541–50. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.38.4.541.Google Scholar
Lombroso, C., ed. (1911) Crime: Its causes and remedies. Little, Brown. (Original work published 1899.)Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. & Wilson, E. O., eds. (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R. & Conner, A. (2013) Clash! 8 cultural conflicts that make us who we are. Hudson Street Press.Google Scholar
Michael, R. P. & Zumpe, D. (1986) An annual rhythm in the battering of women. American Journal of Psychiatry 143:637–40. doi: 10.1176/ajp.143.5.637.Google Scholar
Milfont, T. L. & Gapski, E. (2010) Cross-cultural differences in time orientations: Integrating culture-level data. Paper presented at the 20th Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Melbourne, Australia.Google Scholar
Miller, B. C., Benson, B. & Galbraith, K. A. (2001) Family relationships and adolescent pregnancy risk: A research synthesis. Developmental Review 21:1–38. doi: 10.1006/drev.2000.0513.Google Scholar
Miller, G. E., Chen, E. & Parker, K. J. (2011) Psychological stress in childhood and susceptibility to chronic diseases of aging: Moving toward a model of behavioral and biological mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin 137:959–97. doi: 10.1037/a0024768.Google Scholar
Mittal, C. & Griskevicius, V. (2014) Sense of control under uncertainty depends on people's childhood environment: A Life History Theory approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107:621–37. doi: 10.1037/a0037398.Google Scholar
Moore, M. & Dahlen, E. R. (2008) Forgiveness and consideration of future consequences in aggressive driving. Accident Analysis and Prevention 40:1661–66. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2008.05.007.Google Scholar
Murray, D. R. (2013) Cultural adaptations to the differential threats posed by hot versus cold climates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36:497–98. doi: 10.1017/S014052X13000198.Google Scholar
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2016) Natural hazards views. Available at: http://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/hazards/.Google Scholar
Nettle, D. (2010) Dying young and living fast: Variation in life history across English neighborhoods. Behavioral Ecology 21:387–95. doi: 10.1093/beheco/arp202.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. (1993) Violence and U.S. regional culture. American Psychologist 48:441–49. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.48.4.441.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Cohen, D., eds. (1996) Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Westview Press.Google Scholar
Parker, P. M. (2000) Physioeconomics: The basis for long-run economic growth. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Pianka, E. R. (1970) On r- and K-selection. American Naturalist 104:592–96. doi: 10.1086/282697.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C. & Cullen, F. T. (2000) The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology 38:931–64. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00911.x.Google Scholar
Reifman, A. S., Larrick, R. P. & Fein, S. (1991) Temper and temperature on the diamond: The heat-aggression relationship in major league baseball. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17:580–85. doi: 10.1177/0146167291175013.Google Scholar
Reinders Folmer, C. P., Klapwijk, A., De Cremer, D. & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2012) One for all: What representing a group may do to us. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48:1047–56. doi: 10.1016/j/jesp/2012/04/009.Google Scholar
Robbins, B. G. (2015) Climate, affluence, and trust: Revisiting climato-economic models of generalized trust with cross-national longitudinal data, 1981–2009. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 46:277–89. doi: 10.1177/0022022114562496.Google Scholar
Rotton, J. & Cohn, E. G. (2000) Violence is a curvilinear function of violence in Dallas: A replication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78:1074–81. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1074.Google Scholar
Rotton, J. & Cohn, E. G. (2001) Temperature, routine activities, and domestic violence: A reanalysis. Violence and Victims 16:203–15. doi: 10.1891/0886-6708.27.5.811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rusbult, C. E. & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2003) Interdependence, interaction, and relationships. Annual Review of Psychology 54:351–75. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145059.Google Scholar
Schaller, M. (2006) Parasites, behavioral defenses, and the social psychological mechanisms through which cultures are evoked. Psychological Inquiry 17:96–101. doi: 10.1207/pli.2006.17.issue-4.Google Scholar
Schaller, M. & Murray, D. R. (2008) Pathogens, personality, and culture: Disease prevalence predicts worldwide variability in sociosexuality, extraversion, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95:212–21. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.212.Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K. (2005) An evolutionary perspective on cultures of honor. Evolutionary Psychology 3:381–91. doi: 10.1037/e566792012-038.Google Scholar
Simister, J. & Van de Vliert, E. (2005) Is there more violence in very hot weather? Test over time in Pakistan and across countries worldwide. Pakistan Journal of Meteorology 2:55–70. doi: 10.1177/00222102033004002.Google Scholar
Simpson, J. A., Griskevicius, V., Kuo, S. I. C., Sung, S. & Colling, W. (2012) Evolution, stress, and sensitive periods: The influence of unpredictability in early versus later childhood on sex and risky behavior. Developmental Psychology 48:674–86. doi: 10.1037/a0027293.Google Scholar
Snyder, C. R. & Lopez, S. J. (2009) Oxford handbook of positive psychology. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sutherland, E. H. & Cressey, D. R., eds. (1978) Criminology. Lippincott.Google Scholar
Teece, M. & Williams, P. (2000) Alcohol-related assault: Time and place. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice, No. 169. Australian Institute of Criminology. Available at: http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/currentseries/tandi/161-180/tandi169.aspx.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. & Fincher, C. L. (2011) Parasite stress promotes homicide and child maltreatment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366:3466–77. doi: 10.1098/rtsb.2011.0052.Google Scholar
Tierney, J. & Hobbs, D., eds. (2003) Alcohol-related crime and disorder data: Guidance for local partnerships. Home Office Online Research Report. Home Office.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2013) Global study on homicide 2013: Trends, contexts, data. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/gsh.Google Scholar
Upchurch, D. M., Aneshensel, C. S., Sucoff, C. A. & Levy-Storms, L. (1999) Neighborhood and family contexts of adolescent sexual activity. Journal of Marriage and the Family 61:920–33. doi: 10.2307/354013.Google Scholar
Van de Vliert, E. (2009) Climate, affluence, and culture. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Van de Vliert, E. (2011b) Climato-economic origins of variation in ingroup favoritism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 42:494–515. doi: 10.1177/0022022110381120.Google Scholar
Van de Vliert, E. (2013a) Climato-economic habitats support patterns of human needs, stresses, and freedoms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36(05):465–80.Google Scholar
Van de Vliert, E., Schwartz, S. H., Huismans, S. E., Hofstede, G. & Daan, S. (1999) Temperature, cultural masculinity, and domestic political violence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30:291–314. doi: 10.1177/0022022199030003002.Google Scholar
Van de Vliert, E. & Tol, R. S. J. (2014) Harsh climate promotes harsh governance (except in cold-dry-wealthy environments). Climate Research 61:19–28. doi: 10.3354/cr01246.Google Scholar
Van de Vliert, E., Van der Vegt, G. S. & Janssen, O. (2009) Prosocial to egoistic enculturation of our children: A climato-economic contextualization. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research 2(2):123–37.Google Scholar
Van Gelder, J.-L., Hershfield, H. & Nordgren, L. F. (2013) Vividness of the future self predicts delinquency. Psychological Science 24:974–80. doi: 10.1177/0956797612465197.Google Scholar
Van Gelder, J.-L., Luciano, E. C., Weulen Krananbarg, M. & Hershfield, H. (2015) Friends with my future self: Longitudinal vividness intervention reduces delinquency. Criminology 53:158–79. doi: 10.1111/1745-9125.12064.Google Scholar
Van Lange, P. A. M. (2013) What we should expect from theories in social psychology. Truth, Abstraction, Progress, and Applicability as standards (TAPAS). Personality and Social Psychology Review 17:234–41. doi: 10.1177/1088868312453088.Google Scholar
Van Lange, P. A. M. Joireman, J., Parks, C. D. & Van Dijk, E. (2013) The psychology of social dilemmas: A review. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 120:125–41. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.11.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Lange, P. A. M., Klapwijk, A. & Van Munster, L. (2011) How the shadow of the future might promote cooperation. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 14:857–70. doi: 10.1177/1368430211402102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinning, D. R. (1986) Social versus reproductive success: The central theoretical problem of sociobiology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:167–216. doi: 10.1017/s0140525x00021968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J., Wilson, P. R., Chappell, D. & Weatherburn, D. (1990) A comparison of crime in Australia and other countries. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 23:1–8. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.Google Scholar
Werner, C. M., Altman, I. & Oxley, D. (1985) Temporal aspects of homes: A transactional perspective. In: Home environments: Vol. 8. Human behavior and environment: Advances in theory and research, ed. Altman, I. & Werner, C. M., pp. 1–32. Plenum.Google Scholar
Whitehouse, H. & Lanman, J. A. (2014) The ties that bind us: Ritual, fusion, and identification. Current Anthropology 55:674–95. doi: 10.1086/678698.Google Scholar
Wikelski, M., Hau, M. & Wingfield, J. C. (2000) Seasonality and reproduction in a neotropical rain forest bird. Ecology 81:2458–72. doi: 10.2307/177467.Google Scholar
Wildschut, T., Pinter, B., Vevea, J. L., Insko, C. A. & Schopler, J. (2003) Beyond the group mind: A quantitative review of the interindividual-intergroup discontinuity effect. Psychological Bulletin 129:698–722. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.698.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) (2013) World health statistics 2013. Available at: http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/2013/en/.Google Scholar
Zillmann, D. (1979) Hostility and aggression. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (1999) Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77:1271–88. doi: 10.1037/00223514.77.6.1271.Google Scholar
Zimbardo, P. G., Keough, K. A. & Boyd, J. N. (1997) Present time perspective as a predictor of risky driving. Personality and Individual Differences 23(6):1007–23. Available at: http://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00113-X.Google Scholar