Scientific research on ‘animal welfare’ began because of ethical concerns over the quality of life of animals, and the public looks to animal welfare research for guidance regarding these concerns. The conception of animal welfare used by scientists must relate closely to these ethical concerns if the orientation of the research and the interpretation of the findings is to address them successfully.

At least three overlapping ethical concerns are commonly expressed regarding the quality of life of animals: (1) that animals should lead natural lives through the development and use of their natural adaptations and capabilities, (2) that animals should feel well by being free from prolonged and intense fear, pain, and other negative states, and by experiencing normal pleasures, and (3) that animals should function well, in the sense of satisfactory health, growth and normal functioning of physiological and behavioural systems. Various scientists have proposed restricted conceptions of animal welfare that relate to only one or other of these three concerns. Some such conceptions are based on value positions about what is truly important for the quality of life of animals or about the nature of human responsibility for animals in their care. Others are operational claims: (1) that animal welfare research must focus on the functioning of animals because subjective experiences fall outside the realm of scientific enquiry, or (2) that studying the functioning of animals is sufficient because subjective experiences and functioning are closely correlated. We argue that none of these positions provides fully satisfactory guidance for animal welfare research.

We suggest instead that ethical concerns about the quality of life of animals can be better captured by recognizing three classes of problems that may arise when the adaptations possessed by an animal do not fully correspond to the challenges posed by its current environment. (I) If animals possess adaptations that no longer serve a significant function in the new environment, then unpleasant subjective experiences may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant disruption to biological functioning. Thus, a bucket-fed calf may experience a strong, frustrated desire to suck, even though it obtains adequate milk. (2) If the environment poses challenges for which the animal has no corresponding adaptation, then functional problems may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant effects on subjective feelings. Thus, a pig breathing polluted air may develop lung damage without appearing to notice or mind the problem. (3) Where animals have adaptations corresponding to the kinds of environmental challenges they face, problems may still arise if the adaptations prove inadequate. For example, an animal's thermoregulatory adaptations may be insufficient in a very cold environment such that the animal both feels poorly and functions poorly. We propose that all three types of problems are causes of ethical concern over the quality of life of animals and that they together define the subject matter of animal welfare science.

We discuss the properties of controllability and complexity in novel object enrichment, their definition and present a critique of previous work related to them. We address the relationship between control and complexity, the evolutionary basis of their attractiveness and suggest that the acquisition of control may be a more enriching process than its execution. We propose that, although little work has been directed at separating their relative contributions to enrichment, controllability appears more important than complexity. We discuss the ways in which objects can be responsive both in terms of the predictability of the response and the ‘grade’ of actor-object interaction.

A number of alternative farrowing systems have recently been developed, some of which have been more successful at improving welfare and productivity than others. It is argued that for a system to be successful it should meet with the behavioural requirements of the sow at this time. A number of studies have been carried out to observe the natural behaviour patterns of the peri-parturient sow in a wide range of environmental conditions. These studies have shown that during each phase of peri-parturient behaviour there are a number of key environmental features and conditions which are important to the sow. These include the social environment, shelter, nesting material and offspring interaction. This information can be useful in the design of farrowing systems. A review of the literature indicated that the more these conditions are met, the more readily the sow can adapt to the system, leading to improvements in maternal behaviour and piglet production.

In zoo and laboratory colonies of marmosets and tamarins (Callitrichidae) there has been an increasing need to adopt breeding control methods. In zoos, this need has been driven by a growth in populations. In laboratories, increased interest in control options has followed from the requirement to improve welfare by housing potential breeding animals together. Progestagen-containing contraceptive implants or depot-injections, prostaglandin injection regimes, vasectomy and various group-management methods have been used to control reproduction in marmoset and tamarin colonies. There is a need for advances in control techniques suitable for use in zoos. In the meantime, a policy of selective euthanasia or the use of vasectomy are recommended as control methods. In laboratories, although improved control methods are required, a number of techniques have been found to be satisfactory. When there are surplus marmosets and tamarins, the alternatives for their utilization include movement to other colonies, use for studies within zoos or in laboratories, sale to private keepers or euthanasia. Selling these animals privately is not recommended, except in exceptional circumstances. The preferred control option will differ in each circumstance and guidance is given in this paper.

For cats, appropriate housing conditions and a quick adjustment to new surroundings should be promoted during temporary stays in animal shelters and boarding catteries. In this study the development of stress in 140 boarding cats during a two-week stay under single-, pairand group-housing conditions in a boarding cattery was investigated and compared with the stress levels of 45 control cats which had been at the animal shelter for several weeks. Signs of stress were recorded by a non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score.

Overall, the levels of stress in boarding cats declined during the two weeks of boarding, with a pronounced decline in the first days, but did not reach the stress levels of the control group by the end of the second week of housing. In the second week, the average stress level of about one third of all boarding cats was rated higher than ‘weakly tense’ with 4 per cent of cats rated even higher than ‘very tense’. Neither housing style (single, paired or grouped) nor age had an influence on stress levels.

It was concluded that about two thirds of the boarding cats adjusted well to the boarding cattery during a two-week stay, while for the other third, temporary boarding was more stressful. For 4 per cent of the animals the two-week stay in a boarding cattery was classified as inappropriate because no reduction of their high stress levels occurred.

Twenty-one wapiti calves, born between 24 May and 4 July were weaned on 5 September. They were weighed, divided into two groups (10 and 11 calves) and either moved to a familiar paddock, adjacent to their dams and allowed fence-line contact (contact wean - CW), or moved to a familiar paddock which was visually obscured, and separated from their dams by approximately 50m (remote wean - RW). For the next two days after weaning the calves were observed from dawn until dusk. All observations were done using a 10-minute instantaneous scan sampling technique. Activities recorded included the number of calves standing, walking, lying, fence-line pacing, running, grazing, and feeding at a trough. On day 4 the observation time was reduced to 9 hours and 20 minutes. Observations were continued for a further six days during 2-hour periods after dawn and before dark. The calves were held in these separate paddocks for 10 days and during that time were weighed. After that they were held together in the remote wean paddock and weighed again at 31 and 63 days. There were no significant differences in the amount of time spent grazing between the two groups and there were no differences in weight gains between the groups throughout the trial. The CW calves vocalized less and spent less time standing, walking, fence-line pacing and running compared to RW calves. The CW calves were also observed spending more time lying and feeding at the trough. Overall, the CW calves displayed fewer behaviours indicative of the distress following weaning.

There is a growing awareness that non-human primates kept in zoos and laboratories deserve more species-appropriate stimulation because of their biological adaptation to a challenging environment.

Numerous attempts have been made to effectively emulate the gathering and processing aspects of natural feeding. Whole natural food-items, woodchips mixed with seeds, the puzzle ceiling and the puzzle feeder stocked with ordinary biscuits, cost little or nothing but induce sustained food gathering and/or food processing. Turf and fleece substrates sprinkled with particles of flavoured food, foraging trays, probe feeders and puzzles baited with food treats also promote more foraging behaviour, but they are relatively expensive and require added labour time to load and clean them.

The early development of bar-gnawing was studied in young gerbils kept in standard laboratory cages. Bar-gnawing was performed on the bars of the cage lid and developed shortly after eye-opening at an age of 18 days. It increased in bout length and duration with age and there was considerable variability in behaviour between individuals. It is discussed as to whether bar-gnawing is a stereotypy and in which behavioural context it develops.

Following long-running disputes between those in favour and those against the hunting of red deer with hounds on the lands it owns, the National Trust (a charity that owns and manages large amounts of land in the UK) commissioned Professor Patrick Bateson, Professor of Ethology and Provost of King's College, Cambridge, to study the welfare aspects of this form of deer hunting. The conclusion of the two-year study, which was scrutinized prior to publication by an independent panel of 14 eminent zoologists and veterinarians (including members nominated by bodies for and against deer hunting), was unambiguous: ‘…The study produced clear-cut scientific results. These show that lengthy hunts with hounds impose extreme stress on red deer and are likely to cause them great suffering. The hunts force them to experience conditions far outside the normal limits for their species…. ‘. In the light of this report, the Council of the National Trust promptly and unanimously agreed on 11th April 1997 to end deer hunting with hounds on the lands it owns.

This is a very useful information resource for primatologists. Its production represents a notable international effort. The directory is divided into five main sections and has four indexes. The main sections provide data on organizations, field studies, populationmanagement groups, primate societies, and information resources. There are indexes for organizations, species, subjects, and names of individuals. Three hundred and seven organizations are listed and, for each, data are provided on contact addresses and telecommunication numbers, the mission, research programmes, species supported, key personnel, training opportunities provided, and other aspects. The section on populationmanagement groups lists all the studbook and species programmes and includes a recent ISIS abstract containing data (numbers, sexes, locations) on all the primates kept in ISIS registered zoos and primate centres throughout the world. If you want to know, for example, where and how many Callithrix geoffroyi are maintained in captivity, this is a good place to start. The primate societies section contains the names and addresses of all the members of the International Primate Society and data on 27 other primate societies, including contact names and addresses, and details of their missions and activities. The final main section provides data on various primate information resources: information centres, resources for animal exchange and animal care supplies, details of internet-based information sources (Primatetalk, AskPrimate, and others), primatology web sites, journals and newsletters. The indexes make the directory very easy to use. Although there is much here of relevance to the subject, welfare is, regrettably, not listed as a subject heading in the index. This will be a valuable tool for many primatologists and would-be primatologists, and the price is very reasonable.

This is the nineteenth in a series of guidelines, produced by the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture, on animal welfare issues. It is well laid out, easy to understand and follows a logical progression from a general introduction, through the principles and methods of killing, to special requirements for emergency slaughter.

Primate Care is a guide for those who either keep or plan to keep primates in their care. As the authors point out in the introduction, primates generally do not make good pets. They are wild animals, and as such can be aggressive, destructive and even dangerous. Indeed, in the UK it is necessary to have a licence under the Dangerous Wild Animals Act in order to keep any monkeys other than marmosets as pets. However, if monkeys are to be kept as pets then their owners should be both forewarned of the difficulties and have access to information on good housing and care. The handbook certainly warns of the problems, and is a source of easily accessible basic information. It includes chapters on New and Old World primates, housing, enrichment, reproduction, nutrition, health and socialization. It also provides a useful address list of suppliers of information, enrichment devices and diets. The layout is friendly and varied, with abundant illustrations. This is a publication that will be useful for shelters that take primates, those who keep primates as pets, and might find a place on the bookshelves of the laboratory animal technician.