Leishmania donovani, the most virulent species of Leishmania, is found in the South Asian region that harbours the majority of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) cases in the world. The traditionally accepted relationships between the causative species of Leishmania and the resultant disease phenotype have been challenged during recent years and have underscored the importance of revisiting the previously established taxonomy with revisions to its classification. The weak voice of the afflicted with decades of neglect by scientists and policy makers have led to the miserably inadequate and slow advancements in product development in the fields of diagnostics, chemotherapeutics and vector control that continue to hinder the effective management and control of this infection. Limitations notwithstanding, the regional drive for the elimination of VL initiated over a decade ago that focused on India, Nepal and Bangladesh, the three main afflicted countries in the Indian subcontinent is therefore, commendable, with the subsequent status reviews and restructuring of strategies possibly even more so. However, the renewed efforts would need to be combined with plans to combat new challenges in the South-Asian region that includes the emergence of atypical parasite variants, in order to realistically achieve the set goal of regional elimination of VL.

The free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is the simplest animal model organism to work with. Substantial knowledge and tools have accumulated over 50 years of C. elegans research. The use of C. elegans relating to parasitic nematodes from a basic biology standpoint or an applied perspective has increased in recent years. The wealth of information gained on the model organism, the use of the powerful approaches and technologies that have advanced C. elegans research to parasitic nematodes and the enormous success of the omics fields have contributed to bridge the divide between C. elegans and parasite nematode researchers. We review key fields, such as genomics, drug discovery and genetics, where C. elegans and nematode parasite research have convened. We advocate the use of C. elegans as a model to study helminth metabolism, a neglected area ready to advance. How emerging technologies being used in C. elegans can pave the way for parasitic nematode research is discussed.

The study of parasites typically crosses into other research disciplines and spans across diverse scales, from molecular- to populational-levels, notwithstanding promoting an understanding of parasites set within evolutionary time. Today, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) help frame much of contemporary parasitological research, since parasites can be found in all ecosystems, blighting human, animal and plant health. In recognition of the multi-disciplinary nature of parasitological research, the 2017 Autumn Symposium of the British Society for Parasitology was held in London to provide a forum for novel exchange across medical, veterinary and wildlife fields of study. Whilst the meeting was devoted to the topic of parasitism, it sought to foster mutualism, the antithesis perhaps of parasitism, by forging new academic connections and social networks to exchange novel ideas. The meeting also celebrated the longstanding career of Professor David Rollinson, FLS in the award of the International Federation for Tropical Medicine Medal for his efforts spanning 40 years of parasitological research. Indeed, David has done so much to explore and promote the fascinating biology of parasitism, as exemplified by the 15 manuscripts contained within this Special Issue.

The inadequacy of current diagnostics for the detection of low worm burdens in humans means that schistosomiasis mansoni is more widespread than previously acknowledged. With the inception of mass drug treatment programmes aimed at disease elimination and the advent of human vaccine trials, the need for more sensitive diagnostics is evident. In this review, we evaluate the merits and limitations of the principal diagnostic methods, namely detection of eggs in faeces; anti-schistosome antibodies in serum; parasite-derived proteins and glycans in serum or urine; parasite DNA in blood, faeces or urine. Only in the baboon model, where actual worm burden is determined by portal perfusion, have faecal smear and circulating antigen methods been calibrated, and shown to have thresholds of detection of 10–19 worm pairs. There is scope for improvement in all the four methods of detection, e.g. the identification of single targets for host antibodies to improve the specificity of enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Despite recent advances in the definition of the schistosome secretome, there have been no comprehensive biomarker investigations of parasite products in the urine of infected patients. Certainly, the admirable goal of eliminating schistosomiasis will not be achieved unless individuals with low worm burdens can be diagnosed.

Malaria is one the most serious infectious diseases with over 200 million clinical cases annually. Most cases of the severe disease are caused by Plasmodium falciparum. The blood stage of Plasmodium parasite is entirely responsible for malaria-associated pathology. The population most susceptible to severe malaria are children under the age of 5, with low levels of immunity. It is only after many years of repeated exposure that individuals living in endemic areas develop clinical immunity. This form of protection prevents clinical episodes by substantially reducing parasite burden. Naturally acquired immunity predominantly targets blood-stage parasites with antibody responses being the main mediators of protection. The targets of clinical immunity are the extracellular merozoite and the infected erythrocyte surface, with the extremely diverse PfEMP1 proteins the main target here. This observation provides a strong rationale that an effective anti-malaria vaccine targeting blood-stage parasites is achievable. Thus the identification of antigenic targets of naturally acquired immunity remains an important step towards the formulation of novel vaccine combinations before testing their efficacy in clinical trials. This review summarizes the main findings to date defining antigenic targets present on the extracellular merozoite associated with naturally acquired immunity to P. falciparum malaria.

This is a systematic review on the role of metalloproteases in the pathogenicity of the American tegumentary leishmaniasis (ATL) caused by New World Leishmania species. The review followed the PRISMA method, searching for articles in PubMed, EMBASE, LILACS and ISI Web of Science, by employing the following terms: ‘leishmaniasis’, ‘cutaneous leishmaniasis’, ‘mucocutaneous leishmaniasis’, ‘diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis’, ‘Leishmania’ and ‘metalloproteases’. GP63 of New World Leishmania species is a parasite metalloproteases involved in the degradation and cleavage of many biological molecules as kappa-B nuclear factor, fibronectin, tyrosine phosphatases. GP63 is capable of inhibiting the activity of the complement system and reduces the host's immune functions, allowing the survival of the parasite and its dissemination. High serological/tissue levels of host matrix metalloproteases (MMP)-9 have been associated with tissue damage during the infection, while high transcriptional levels of MMP-2 related with a satisfactory response to treatment. Host MMPs serological and tissue levels have been investigated using Western Blot, zymography, and Real Time polymerase chain reaction. GP63 detection characterizes species and virulence in promastigotes isolated from lesions samples using techniques mentioned previously. The monitoring of host MMPs levels and GP63 in Leishmania isolated from host samples could be used on the laboratory routine to predict the prognostic and treatment efficacy of ATL.

The rise of antimicrobial resistance, coupled with a lack of industrial focus on antimicrobial discovery over preceding decades, has brought the world to a crisis point. With both human and animal health set to decline due to increased disease burdens caused by near untreatable microbial pathogens, there is an urgent need to identify new antimicrobials. Central to this is the elucidation of new, robustly validated, drug targets. Informed by industrial practice and concerns, the use of both biological and chemical tools in validation is key. In parallel, repurposing approved drugs for use as antimicrobials may provide both new treatments and identify new targets, whilst improved understanding of pharmacology will help develop and progress good ‘hits’ with the required rapidity. In recognition of the need to increase research efforts in these areas, in 14–16 September 2017, the British Society for Parasitology (BSP) Autumn Symposium was hosted at Durham University with the title: Microbial Protein Targets: towards understanding and intervention. Staged in collaboration with the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) Chemistry Biology Interface Division (CBID), the core aim was to bring together leading researchers working across disciplines to imagine novel approaches towards combating infection and antimicrobial resistance. Sessions were held on: ‘Anti-infective discovery, an overview’; ‘Omic approaches to target validation’; ‘Genetic approaches to target validation’; ‘Drug target structure and drug discovery’; ‘Fragment-based approaches to drug discovery’; and ‘Chemical approaches to target validation’. Here, we introduce a series of review and primary research articles from selected contributors to the Symposium, giving an overview of progress in understanding antimicrobial targets and developing new drugs. The Symposium was organized by Paul Denny (Durham) for the BSP and Patrick Steel (Durham) for RSC CBID.

In this article, the trends in human parasitology have been studied through the analysis of the number of publications in this area. The parameters studied were: number of articles, language, countries and institutions with the highest number of publications, and keywords with greater presence in the articles of human parasitology. The results of the analysis confirm the growing interest in this area, observing an exponential growth in the number of publications in the last decades. We also verified that the main country in terms of scientific production is the USA, although among the most important institutions, we find non-US centres such as the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. For observing the relative importance of the journals that publish articles in this specific topic, an index has been created based on the h-index of the journal with publications related to human parasitology and divided by every 100 items. This rank is led fist by ‘Journal of Medical Entomology’ closely followed by ‘Parasitology’. The analysis of the keywords allows to draw conclusions about the great importance of malaria in the current world research. A change in analytical methodology is also observed, and molecular techniques are now being imposed. These techniques, in the near future, have to influence in an improvement in the treatments and prevention of the diseases caused by parasites. Finally, it can be seen that diseases traditionally studied as helminthiasis and amebiasis are currently as well studied as others such as toxoplasmosis or leishmaniasis.

Thanks to modern molecular biology methods, our understanding of the impact of (endo)symbiotic bacteria on parasitic protists and helminths is growing fast. In this issue, 9 papers have been brought together that describe various facets of the relationships between these microorganisms, reveal their range and high frequency, as well as their capacity to create novel biological complexity. Comparative analyses of these host–endosymbiont interactions indicate that there may be no discrete types of relationships but rather a continuum ranging from a dispensable endosymbiont minimally integrated within the host cell to organelles, such as mitochondria and plastids that evolved into an indispensable, deeply integrated components of the cell. We hope that this series of studies on parasites and (endo)symbiotic bacteria will increase awareness about these relationships and their representation in microbial ecology models.

The acanthocephalan fauna of Australian freshwater fishes was documented from field surveys, a literature survey and examination of specimens registered in Australian museums. From the 4030 fishes, representing 78 of the 354 Australian freshwater fish species (22%), examined for infection seven species of acanthocephalan were recovered. These species comprised five endemic species, three in endemic genera, two species in cosmopolitan genera, one species not fully identified and 1 putative exotic species recovered from eight species of fish. Of these Edmonsacanthus blairi from Melanotaenia splendida, was the only acanthocephalan found at a relatively high prevalence of 38·6%. These findings are indicative of a highly endemic and possibly depauperate acanthocephalan fauna. Species richness was higher in the tropical regions than the temperate regions of the country. Exotic acanthocephalan species have either not been introduced with their exotic hosts or have been unable to establish their life cycles in Australian conditions. Consequently, acanthocephalans have not yet invaded endemic Australian fish hosts.

Coinfection with human visceral leishmaniasis (HVL) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has become an emerging public health problem in several parts of the world, with high morbidity and mortality rates. A systematic review was carried out in the literature available in PubMed, Scielo and Lilacs related to HVL associated with HIV coinfection, seeking to analyze epidemiological, clinical and laboratory aspects. Of the 265 articles found, 15 articles were included in the qualitative analysis, which referred to the results of HVL treatment in patients coinfected with HIV. In the published articles between 2007 and 2015, 1171 cases of HVL/HIV coinfection were identified, 86% males, average age 34 years, liposomal amphotericin B was the most commonly used drug, cure rates 68 and 20% relapses and 19% deaths, five different countries, bone marrow was used in 10/15 manuscripts. HVL/HIV coinfection is a major challenge for public health, mainly due to the difficulty in establishing an accurate diagnosis, low response to treatment with high relapse rates and evolution to death. In addition, these two pathogens act concomitantly for the depletion of the immune system, contributing to worsening the clinical picture of these diseases, which requires effective surveillance and epidemiological control measures.

DNA barcoding is now a common tool in parasitology and epidemiology, which require good methods for identification not only of parasites and pathogens but vectors and reservoirs. This special issue presents some advances and challenges in barcoding of microbes, parasites, and their vectors and reservoirs. DNA barcoding found new applications in disease ecology, conservation parasitology, environmental parasitology and in paleoparasitology. New technologies such as next-generation sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption–ionization time-of-flight have made it now possible to investigate large samples of specimens. By allowing the investigation of parasites at the interface between environment, biodiversity, animal and human health, barcoding and biobanking have important policy outcomes as well as ethics and legal implications. The special issue ‘Advances and challenges in the barcoding of parasites, vectors and reservoirs’ illustrates some recent advances and proposes new avenues for research in barcoding in parasitology.

Although the application of CRISPR/Cas9 genome engineering approaches was first reported in apicomplexan parasites only 3 years ago, this technology has rapidly become an essential component of research on apicomplexan parasites. This review briefly describes the history of CRISPR/Cas9 and the principles behind its use along with documenting its implementation in apicomplexan parasites, especially Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii. We also discuss the recent use of CRISPR/Cas9 for whole genome screening of gene knockout mutants in T. gondii and highlight its use for seminal genetic manipulations of Cryptosporidium spp. Finally, we consider new variations of CRISPR/Cas9 that have yet to be implemented in apicomplexans. Whereas CRISPR/Cas9 has already accelerated rapid interrogation of gene function in apicomplexans, the full potential of this technology is yet to be realized as new variations and innovations are integrated into the field.

The central nervous system (CNS) has been recognized as an immunologically specialized microenvironment, where immune surveillance takes a distinctive character, and where delicate neuronal networks are sustained by anti-inflammatory factors that maintain local homeostasis. However, when a foreign agent such as a parasite establishes in the CNS, a set of immune defences is mounted and several immune molecules are released to promote an array of responses, which ultimately would control the infection and associated damage. Instead, a host–parasite relationship is established, in the context of which a close biochemical coevolution and communication at all organization levels between two complex organisms have developed. The ability of the parasite to establish in its host is associated with several evasion mechanisms to the immune response and its capacity for exploiting host-derived molecules. In this context, the CNS is deeply involved in modulating immune functions, either protective or pathogenic, and possibly in parasitic activity as well, via interactions with evolutionarily conserved molecules such as growth factors, neuropeptides and hormones. This review presents available evidence on some examples of CNS parasitic infections inducing different morbi-mortality grades in low- or middle-income countries, to illustrate how the CNS microenvironment affect pathogen establishment, growth, survival and reproduction in immunocompetent hosts. A better understanding of the influence of the CNS microenvironment on neuroinfections may provide relevant insights into the mechanisms underlying these pathologies.

Growing evidence demonstrates that bacterial species diversity is substantial, and many of these species are pathogenic in some contexts or hosts. At the same time, laboratories and museums have collected valuable animal tissue and ectoparasite samples that may contain substantial novel information on bacterial prevalence and diversity. However, the identification of bacterial species is challenging, partly due to the difficulty in culturing many microbes and the reliance on molecular data. Although the genomics revolution will surely add to our knowledge of bacterial systematics, these approaches are not accessible to all researchers and rely predominantly on cultured isolates. Thus, there is a need for comprehensive molecular analyses capable of accurately genotyping bacteria from animal tissues or ectoparasites using common methods that will facilitate large-scale comparisons of species diversity and prevalence. To illustrate the challenges of genotyping bacteria, we focus on the genus Bartonella, vector-borne bacteria common in mammals. We highlight the value and limitations of commonly used techniques for genotyping bartonellae and make recommendations for researchers interested in studying the diversity of these bacteria in various samples. Our recommendations could be applicable to many bacterial taxa (with some modifications) and could lead to a more complete understanding of bacterial species diversity.

Sarcocystis spp. are intracellular coccidian parasites which infect domestic and wild animals and birds, resulting in considerable economic losses in production animals, and public health concerns worldwide. Sarcocystis spp. have an indirect life cycle where wild and/or domestic canine species primarily serve as definitive hosts and several domestic and wild animals (such as camels) act as intermediate hosts. In Northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and China, camel meat is preferred due to cultural and religious traditions as well as its lower cholesterol/fat content than other red meat. However, camel meat quality could be downgraded by the presence of sarcocysts. To date, two Sarcocystis spp. have been reported from camels, including Sarcocystis ippeni (forms microscopic sarcocysts) and Sarcocystis cameli (forms both macroscopic and microscopic sarcocysts). Sarcocystosis is usually asymptomatic, though significant pathogenic effects have also been reported in camels. Despite the high occurrence of sarcocystosis in camels, little is known about various aspects of the disease in these animals. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the existing knowledge on the taxonomy, pathogenesis, epidemiology and diagnosis of Sarcocystis spp. infecting camels and it also highlights areas for further research that could enhance our understanding about sarcocystosis in camels.

Australian tea tree oil (TTO) and its extract terpinen-4-ol (T4O) are found to be effective in moderating demodex-related diseases. Their possible effects are lowering the mite counts, relieving the demodex-related symptoms and modulating the immune system especially the inflammatory response. This review summarizes the topical treatments of TTO and T4O in human demodicosis, their possible mechanism of actions, side-effects and potential resistance in treating this condition. Although current treatments other than TTO and T4O are relatively effective in controlling the demodex mite population and the related symptoms, more research on the efficacy and drug delivery technology is needed in order to assess its potential as an alternative treatment with minimal side-effect profile, low toxicity and low risk of demodex resistance.

In recent years, a malaria infection of humans in South East Asia, originally diagnosed as a known human-infecting species, Plasmodium malariae, has been identified as a simian parasite, Plasmodium knowlesi. This species had been subject to considerable investigation in monkeys since the 1930s. With the development of continuous culture of the erythrocytic stages of the human malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum in 1976, the emphasis in research shifted away from knowlesi. However, its importance as a human pathogen has provoked a renewed interest in P. knowlesi, not least because it too can be maintained in continuous culture and thus provides an experimental model. In fact, this parasite species has a long history in malaria research, and the purpose of this chapter is to outline approximately the first 50 years of this history.