Field research was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of preplant herbicides commonly used in no-till corn and soybean production and to determine the efficacy of three application timings in the spring for star-of-Bethlehem bulb management. A single, preplant application of herbicide treatments that included flumioxazin, sulfentrazone, or paraquat resulted in 91 to 97% control of star-of-Bethlehem at 14 d after treatment (DAT). Star-of-Bethlehem control from atrazine and metribuzin was moderate (70 to 75%) at the Marion location but poor (< 20%) at Murphysboro. Regardless of the initial foliar control at 14 DAT from treatments included in the corn and soybean herbicide screen, only applications containing paraquat resulted in extensive control (75 to 86%) of star-of-Bethlehem foliar regrowth by 1 yr after treatment. Star-of-Bethlehem was most responsive to herbicide applications in mid-March in southern Illinois when compared with applications made March 1 and April 11. The mid-March application timing corresponded to the vegetative reproductive stage, approximately 3 wk prior to flowering. The average density of star-of-Bethlehem bulbs in nontreated plots occupied 7.9% of the field soil volume in the upper 7.6 cm of the soil profile. Spring applications of paraquat (repeated 2 yr consecutively) reduced bulb density in the soil by 88%, compared with 5% or less bulb reduction for consecutive applications of glyphosate or 2,4-D ester applied alone. Overall, paraquat and paraquat tank mixtures provided the most effective and consistent control of star-of-Bethlehem foliage and underground bulbs, which is paramount for long-term management of this invasive species.

Spray water quality is an important consideration for optimizing herbicide efficacy. Hard water cations in the carrier water can reduce herbicide performance. Greenhouse studies were conducted to evaluate the influence of hard water cations and the use of ammonium sulfate (AMS) on the efficacy of 2,4-D choline and premixed 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate for giant ragweed, horseweed, and Palmer amaranth control. Carrier water hardness was established at 0, 200, 400, 600, 800, or 1,000 mg L−1 using CaCl2 and MgSO4, and each hardness level consisted of without or with AMS at 10.2 g L−1. One-third of the proposed use rates of 2,4-D choline at 280 g ae ha−1 and 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate at 266 plus 283 g ae ha−1, respectively, were applied in the study. An increase in carrier water hardness showed a linear trend for reducing 2,4-D choline and 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate efficacy on all weed species evaluated in both studies. The increase in water hardness level reduced giant ragweed control with 2,4-D choline and the premix formulation of 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate to a greater extent without AMS than it did with AMS in the spray solution. Increases in water hardness from 0 to 1,000 mg L−1 reduced weed control 20% or greater with 2,4-D choline. Likewise, the efficacy of the premixed 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate was reduced 21% or greater with increased water hardness from 0 to 1,000 mg L−1. The addition of AMS improved giant ragweed, horseweed, and Palmer amaranth control ≥ 17% and ≥ 10% for 2,4-D choline and 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate application, respectively. The biomass of all weed species was reduced by ≥ 8% and ≥ 5% with 2,4-D choline and 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate application, respectively, when AMS was added to hard water.

To assess the effectiveness of interrow cultivation, counts were taken before and after cultivation of corn and soybean during the first two crop rotations in a corn–soybean–spelt organic grain cropping systems experiment. Overall control per cultivation event in soybean was 73%, about equal to the 67% of the interrow area actually covered by cultivator tools. Weed control per cultivation event in corn was higher, and exceeded 91% at later cultivations. The greater weed control in corn relative to soybean, particularly at later cultivations, was probably due to more soil being thrown into the corn row, burying a greater proportion of the weeds. Perennial weeds emerging from roots and rhizomes were less controlled by cultivation events than weeds emerging from seeds. Relatively poor control of perennials was due both to rapid resprouting during the few days between cultivation and assessment and to a lower probability of death in the zone indirectly disturbed by cultivator tools. Seedlings of perennial species suffered greater mortality from cultivation than annual weeds, probably because the low relative growth rate of perennials resulted in small seedlings that were susceptible to cultivation. Common ragweed was less controlled by cultivation than other annual weeds, probably because its heavier seeds produced larger seedlings at the time of cultivation. These larger seedlings were less likely to be buried during hilling-up operations at later cultivations. Counts of weeds before and after individual cultivation events provide insight into the processes affecting weed mortality during mechanical management.

Giant ragweed is one of the most competitive annual broadleaf weeds in soybean production fields in the midwestern United States and eastern Canada because of its early emergence, rapid growth rate, high plasticity, and resistance to glyphosate and acetolactate synthase inhibitors. Therefore, early-season management of giant ragweed is critical to avoid yield loss. The objectives of this study were to evaluate control of glyphosate-resistant giant ragweed through the integration of preplant tillage or 2,4-D; PRE or early POST (EPOST) followed by (fb) late POST (LPOST) herbicide programs with or without preplant tillage or 2,4-D; and their effect on soybean injury and yield. A field study was conducted in 2013 and 2014 in David City, NE in a field infested with glyphosate-resistant giant ragweed. Preplant tillage or 2,4-D application provided > 90% control of glyphosate-resistant giant ragweed 14 d after preplant treatment. Giant ragweed control and biomass reduction were consistently > 90% with preplant tillage or 2,4-D fb sulfentrazone plus cloransulam PRE or glyphosate plus cloransulam EPOST fb glyphosate plus fomesafen or lactofen LPOST compared with ≤ 86% control with same treatments without preplant tillage or 2,4-D. PRE or EPOST fb LPOST herbicide programs preceded by preplant treatments resulted in giant ragweed density < 2 plants m−2 and soybean yield > 2,400 kg ha−1 compared with the density of ≥ 2 plants m−2 and soybean yield < 1,800 kg ha−1 under PRE or EPOST fb LPOST herbicide programs. The contrast analysis also indicated that preplant tillage or 2,4-D fb a PRE or POST program was more effective for giant ragweed management compared with PRE fb POST herbicide programs. Integration of preplant tillage would provide an alternative method for early-season control of giant ragweed; however, a follow up application of herbicides is needed for season-long control in soybean.

White bean tolerance and weed control were examined by applying halosulfuron alone or in combination with pendimethalin, dimethenamid-P, or S-metolachlor applied PRE. All herbicides applied alone or in combination caused less than 3% visible injury 1 and 4 wk after emergence (WAE). Halosulfuron applied PRE provided greater than 95% control of common lambsquarters, wild mustard, redroot pigweed, and common ragweed and less than 55% control of green foxtail at 4 and 8 WAE. Weed density and dry weight at 8 WAE paralleled the control ratings. Dry bean yields in halosulfuron plus a soil applied grass herbicide did not differ compared to the weed-free control. Green foxtail competition with halosulfuron PRE applied alone resulted in reduced white bean yield compared to the weed-free control.

Sprayer applicator–controlled variables, such as nozzle selection and ground speed, will become increasingly important for making labeled POST applications of dicamba in next-generation cropping systems. Typically, nozzle orifice sizes and ground speeds differ greatly between small-plot research applications, from which efficacy recommendations are made, and commercial field applications. However, little research has been conducted to compare applications made with backpack sprayers and tractor sprayers. Thus, a field experiment was conducted in 2013 and 2014 at the Northeast Research and Extension Center in Keiser, AR. Tank mixtures of Engenia™ (N, N-Bis-(aminopropyl) methylamine form of dicamba), Liberty (glufosinate-ammonium), and Liberty + Engenia were applied with TeeJet XR, TT, AIXR, AI, and TTI nozzles at 5 km h−1 and 20 km h−1. Two nozzle sizes (110015 and 11006 rated at 0.58 L min−1 and 2.27 L min−1 at 276 kPa, respectively) were used to keep spray volume constant at 141 L ha−1, whereas ground speed was varied. Weed control ratings were typically lower at 5 km h−1 than at 20 km h−1. For example, Palmer amaranth control 4 WAT in 2013 with glufosinate and the TTI nozzle was 89% at 5 km h−1 and 96% at 20 km h−1. More differences between speeds were observed for the coarser nozzles, such as the TTI and AI, as opposed to finer nozzles, such as the XR and TT. Results from this research suggest increasing orifice size increases droplet size and that other factors related to applications at faster speeds (e.g., higher droplet velocity, disruption of the crop canopy) may influence the efficacy of herbicide applications. However, increasing ground speed is not a recommended means for increasing efficacy of herbicide applications.

The performance of the Robovator (F. Poulsen Engineering ApS, Hvals⊘, Denmark), a commercial robotic intrarow cultivator, was evaluated in direct-seeded broccoli and transplanted lettuce during 2014 and 2015 in Salinas, CA, and Yuma, AZ. The main objective was to evaluate the crop stand after cultivation, crop yield, and weed control efficacy of the Robovator compared with a standard cultivator. A second objective was to compare hand weeding time after cultivation within a complete integrated weed management (IWM) system. Herbicides were included as a component of the IWM system. The Robovator did not reduce crop stand or marketable yield compared with the standard cultivator. The Robovator removed 18 to 41% more weeds at moderate to high weed densities and reduced hand-weeding times by 20 to 45% compared with the standard cultivator. At low weed densities there was little difference between the cultivators in terms of weed control and hand-weeding times. The lower-hand weeding time with the Robovator treatments suggest that robotic intrarow cultivators can reduce dependency on hand weeding compared with standard cultivators. Technological advancements and price reductions of these types of machines will likely improve their weed removal efficacy and the long-term viability of IWM programs that will use them.

The objective of this research was to explore the influence that weed decision threshold (DT; expressed as plants m−2), weed spatial distribution patterns, and spatial resolution of sampling have on potential reduction in herbicide use under site-specific weed management. As a case study, a small plot located in a typical corn field in central Spain was used, constructing very precise distribution maps of the major weeds present. These initial maps were used to generate herbicide prescription maps for each weed species based on different DTs and sampling resolutions. The simulation of herbicide prescription maps consisted of on/off spraying decisions based on information from two different approaches for weed detection: ground-based vs. aerial sensors. In general, simulations based on ground sensors resulted in higher herbicide savings than those based on aerial sensors. The extent of herbicide reductions derived from patch spraying was directly related to the density and the spatial distribution of each weed species. Herbicide savings were potentially high (up to 66%) with relatively sparse patchy weed species (e.g., johnsongrass) but were only moderate (10 to 20%) with abundant and regularly distributed weed species (e.g., velvetleaf). However, DT has proven to be a key factor, with higher DTs resulting in reductions in herbicide use for all the weed species and all sampling procedures and resolutions. Moreover, increasing DT from 6 to 12 plants m−2 resulted in additional herbicide savings of up to 50% in the simulations for johnsongrass and up to 28% savings in the simulations for common cocklebur. Nonetheless, since DT determines the accuracy of patch spraying, the consequences of using higher DTs could be leaving areas unsprayed, which could adversely affect crop yields and future weed infestations, including herbicide-resistant weeds. Considering that the relationship between DT and accuracy of herbicide application depends on weed spatial pattern, this work has demonstrated the possibility of using higher DT values in weeds with a clear patchy distribution compared with weeds distributed regularly.

Glyphosate-resistant (GR) weeds, especially GR Palmer amaranth, are very problematic in cotton-producing areas of the midsouthern region of the United States. Growers rely heavily on PRE residual herbicides to control Palmer amaranth since few effective POST options exist. Interest in integrating high-residue cover crops with existing herbicide programs to combat GR weeds has increased. Research was conducted in 2013 and 2014 in Tennessee to evaluate GR Palmer amaranth control when integrating cover crops and PRE residual herbicides. Cereal rye, crimson clover, hairy vetch, winter wheat, and combinations of one grass plus one legume were compared with winter weeds without a cover crop followed by fluometuron or acetochlor applied PRE. Biomass of cover crops was determined prior to termination 3 wk before planting. Combinations of grass and legume cover crops accumulated the most biomass (> 3,500 kg ha−1) but by 28 d after application (DAA) the cereal rye and wheat provided the best Palmer amaranth control. Crimson clover and hairy vetch treatments had the greatest number of Palmer amaranth. These cereal and legume blends reduced Palmer amaranth emergence by half compared to non–cover-treated areas. Fluometuron and acetochlor controlled Palmer amaranth 95 and 89%, respectively, at 14 DAA and 54 and 62%, respectively, at 28 DAA. Cover crops in combination with a PRE herbicide did not adequately control Palmer amaranth.

POST broadleaf weed control options in chickpea are very limited on the Northern Great Plains. Field experiments were conducted in 2012 and 2013 in Saskatchewan to evaluate the response of chickpea cultivars to imidazolinone (IMI) herbicides applied at different growth stages. Conventional cultivars ‘CDC Luna’ and ‘CDC Corinne’ were compared with IMI-resistant cultivars ‘CDC Alma’ and ‘CDC Cory’. Treatments comprised a combination of imazethapyr + imazamox herbicides at 30 and 60 g ai ha−1 (1× and 2× rates, respectively) applied at the 2 to 4-, 5 to 8-, and 9 to 12-node growth stages. Visual injury estimates were > 50% for CDC Luna and CDC Corinne for all growth stage applications. Conventional cultivars also experienced height reduction and decreased rate of node development compared with the nontreated controls. Flowering and maturity of CDC Luna and CDC Corinne were delayed for herbicide applications at all growth stages; however, application at the 9 to 12-node stage caused the most severe delay. All treatments of IMI herbicide caused yield reduction in the conventional cultivars in 2013. In contrast, IMI-resistant cultivars CDC Alma and CDC Cory demonstrated no negative response at any growth stage of IMI herbicide application. Visual injury estimates were negligible, and height, node development, days to flowering, maturity, and yield did not differ significantly between IMI-treated plants and the respective controls. These results demonstrated the potential of in-crop use of IMI herbicide on resistant chickpea cultivars to control broadleaf weeds.

Palmer amaranth and waterhemp have become increasingly troublesome weeds throughout the United States. Both species are highly adaptable and emerge continuously throughout the summer months, presenting the need for a residual PRE application in soybean. To improve season-long control of Amaranthus spp., 19 PRE treatments were evaluated on glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth in 2013 and 2014 at locations in Arkansas, Indiana, Nebraska, Illinois, and Tennessee; and on glyphosate-resistant waterhemp at locations in Illinois, Missouri, and Nebraska. The two Amaranthus species were analyzed separately; data for each species were pooled across site-years, and site-year was included as a random variable in the analyses. The dissipation of weed control throughout the course of the experiments was compared among treatments with the use of regression analysis where percent weed control was described as a function of time (the number of weeks after treatment [WAT]). At the mean (i.e., average) WAT (4.3 and 3.2 WAT for Palmer amaranth and waterhemp, respectively) isoxaflutole + S-metolachlor + metribuzin had the highest predicted control of Palmer amaranth (98%) and waterhemp (99%). Isoxaflutole + S-metolachlor + metribuzin, S-metolachlor + mesotrione, and flumioxazin + pyroxasulfone had a predicted control ≥ 97% and similar model parameter estimates, indicating control declined at similar rates for these treatments. Dicamba and 2,4-D provided some, short-lived residual control of Amaranthus spp. When dicamba was added to metribuzin or S-metolachlor, control increased compared to dicamba alone. Flumioxazin + pyroxasulfone, a currently labeled PRE, performed similarly to treatments containing isoxaflutole or mesotrione. Additional sites of action will provide soybean growers more opportunities to control these weeds and reduce the potential for herbicide resistance.

Red beet growers have expressed interest in adopting the microrate herbicide approach originally implemented in sugarbeet to achieve season-long weed management. Several red beet herbicides were first labeled for use in sugarbeet and lack substantial residual weed control. In response, red beet herbicide programs were evaluated that included a PRE application followed by up to three POST applications of various herbicide combinations. This research, however, indicated that herbicide programs that included PRE herbicides followed by as few as one or two POST applications that involve multiple active ingredients can provide season-long weed control. This observation was consistent across a broad spectrum of weeds, between two study locations that varied in soil type, and during two growing seasons. Herbicide programs that included only a PRE and six-leaf red beet growth stage application were successful at two locations in maintaining weed control and crop yield relative to hand-weeded red beet. Furthermore, these herbicide programs reduced the number of applications by 50% compared with the full programs, reducing crop injury risk and grower cost.

Indaziflam is a cellulose biosynthesis–inhibiting herbicide for PRE annual weed control in turfgrass systems. Since indaziflam's 2010 U.S. registration, sporadic cases of hybrid bermudagrass injury have been reported; however, causes are not well understood. Field research was conducted from 2013 to 2015 on sandy soil to elucidate the effects of soil organic matter content (SOMC) and soil volumetric water content (SVWC) on plant growth following indaziflam application on established or root-compromised (5 cm long) hybrid bermudagrass. The effect of SOMC was evaluated at two levels, 1.4 (low) and 5.5% (high) w/w at the soil surface (0 to 2.5 cm depth), whereas SVWC was evaluated PRE (2 wk before) and POST (6 wk after) indaziflam application at two levels (low or high). Indaziflam was applied (50 or 100 g ai ha−1) at fall-only, fall-plus-spring, and spring-only timings. Regardless of application timing or SVWC, indaziflam applied at 50 g ha−1 to high SOMC did not cause > 10% visual cover reduction on established or root-compromised hybrid bermudagrass. Indaziflam applied to hybrid bermudagrass on low SOMC exacerbated adverse growth effects, most notably when root systems were compromised before application. Overall, PRE indaziflam application SVWC did not affect hybrid bermudagrass growth. Within low SOMC, low POST indaziflam application SVWC caused less visual hybrid bermudagrass cover reduction than did high POST indaziflam application SVWC, whereas both fall-plus-spring and spring-only application timings caused similarly greater reductions than fall-only indaziflam application. Data from this research will aid turfgrass managers to effectively use indaziflam without adversely affecting hybrid bermudagrass growth.

Rigid ryegrass is the most-troublesome, herbicide-resistant weed in cropping systems of southern Australia. Field experiments were undertaken at Roseworthy, South Australia, in 2013 and 2014, to identify effective herbicide options for the control of clethodim-resistant rigid ryegrass in Clearfield canola. PPI trifluralin + triallate followed by (fb) POST imazamox + imazapyr + clethodim + butroxydim had the lowest plant density of rigid ryegrass in 2014 and provided superior control compared with the standard grower practice of PPI trifluralin + triallate fb POST imazamox + imazapyr + clethodim in 1 of 2 yr. Propyzamide either alone or as a split application (PPI fb POST) or in combination with clethodim provided similar rigid ryegrass control to that of the standard grower practice (38 to 553 plants m−2). Rigid ryegrass treated with PPI dimethenamid-P, pethoxamid, pethoxamid + triallate, and PPI trifluralin fb carbetamide POST produced significantly more seeds than the standard grower practice, which would lead to reinfestation of subsequent crops. Canola yield responded positively to effective herbicide treatments, especially in 2014, when rigid ryegrass density was greater. PPI dimethenamid-P and pethoxamid alone or in combination with triallate and propyzamide were ineffective in reducing rigid ryegrass density and seed production to levels acceptable for continuous cropping systems.

Methyl bromide (MBr) was a widely used fumigant in plasticulture because of its effectiveness against soil-borne pests and weeds in high-value crops; however, it was found to be a class 1 ozone-depleting substance and is no longer available for use in most of the United States. A mixture of 1,3-dichloropropene and chloropicrin (Pic-Clor 60) is an alternative that has been used to control soil-borne pathogens and nematodes, and has marginal control of weeds. Virtually impermeable film (VIF) and totally impermeable film (TIF) retain fumigants in the soil longer than the low- and high-density polyethylene films typically used in plasticulture production systems. The increased retention by these films may result in greater control of recalcitrant weeds such as nutsedge. Four rates of Pic-Clor 60 (112, 168, 224, and 280 kg ai ha−1) used with TIF, 280 kg ai ha−1 of Pic-Clor 60 used with VIF, and one nontreated control with VIF were evaluated for 2 yr to assess control of yellow and purple nutsedge and to determine an efficacious Pic-Clor 60 rate used with TIF. TIF with a lower rate of 224 kg ai ha−1 of Pic-Clor 60 significantly controlled nutsedge populations compared to a high rate of 280 kg ai ha−1 with VIF.

Sicklepod and pitted morningglory are two of the most important weed species in row-crop production in the southeastern United States. The upcoming introduction of soybean and cotton varieties resistant to 2,4-D and dicamba will increase the reliance on these auxinic herbicides. However, it is not clear how these herbicides will affect sicklepod and pitted morningglory control. Field experiments were conducted in 2013 and 2014 in Jay, FL to determine whether 2,4-D (560 and 1,120 g ae ha−1), dicamba (420 and 840 g ae ha−1), and glyphosate (1,060 g ae ha−1) alone or in combination applied when weed shoots were 11 (early POST [EPOST]) and 22 (late POST [LPOST]) cm long effectively control and prevent seed production of sicklepod and pitted morningglory. LPOST provided more effective control of sicklepod than EPOST. This was attributed to emergence of sicklepod seedlings after the EPOST application. When glyphosate was tank mixed with 2,4-D or dicamba, sicklepod control was higher (78 to 89% and 87 to 98% in 2013 and 2014, respectively) than for single-herbicide treatments (45 to 77% and 38 to 80% in 2013 and 2014, respectively) 6 wk after treatment (WAT). Pitted morningglory control was not affected by application timing, and 2,4-D provided 91 to 100% 6 WAT, which was equivalent to treatments with tank mixtures containing glyphosate. Dicamba applied at 420 g ha−1 had the lowest pitted morningglory control (44 to 70% and 82 to 86% in 2013 and 2014, respectively). Sicklepod and pitted morningglory plants that survived and recovered from herbicide treatments produced the same number of viable seeds as nontreated plants in most treatments. The results of the present study indicated that the use of 2,4-D and dicamba alone will not provide adequate extended control of sicklepod, and the use of tank mixtures that combine auxinic herbicides with glyphosate or other POST herbicides will be necessary to manage sicklepod adequately in 2,4-D- or dicamba-resistant soybean and cotton. Because sicklepod plants that survived a single herbicide application are capable of producing abundant viable seeds, integrated approaches that include PRE herbicides and sequential POST control options may be necessary to ensure weed seed bank reductions.

Both regulatory and consumer forces have increased the demand for biopesticides, particularly in amenity areas such as turfgrass. Unfortunately, few natural products are available for selective weed control in turfgrass. Two bioherbicides reported to control broadleaf weeds without injuring turfgrass are Phoma macrostoma and thaxtomin A. Field and container experiments were conducted to evaluate PRE and POST efficacy of P. macrostoma and thaxtomin A on regionally important broadleaf weeds. In container experiments, PRE applications of P. macrostoma provided 65 to 100% control of dandelion, marsh yellowcress, and flexuous bittercress, equivalent to that of pendimethalin. Control of yellow woodsorrel, henbit, hairy galinsoga, common chickweed, or annual bluegrass was less than with pendimethalin. In contrast, POST applications did not control any species as well as an industry-standard synthetic auxin herbicide. PRE or POST applications of thaxtomin A controlled six of the eight species tested as well as the industry-standard PRE or POST herbicides. In field tests, overall PRE broadleaf weed control with P. macrostoma and thaxtomin A peaked 4 wk after treatment at 64 and 72%, respectively, and declined afterward, suggesting that these bioherbicides possess short residuals and therefore must be reapplied for season-long control. Overall POST broadleaf weed control using P. macrostoma and thaxtomin A was only 41 and 25%, respectively. PRE followed by early-POST applications of thaxtomin A provided ≥ 86% henbit control. These results suggest that both P. macrostoma and thaxtomin A are capable of controlling certain broadleaf weeds in turfgrass. However, both lack efficacy on some important weed species, particularly chickweed. Thaxtomin A efficacy on henbit was improved by increased dose and by PRE followed by early-POST applications.

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a common ingredient in POST broadleaf herbicides labeled for use in turf, pastures, rangeland, and grain crops. The herbicide 2,4-D is a weak acid, and when dissociated can bind to cations present in hard-water spray solutions and/or fertilizer solutions. Experiments were conducted with 2,4-D dimethylamine to evaluate the effect of cation solutions on herbicide efficacy on the perennial broadleaf weeds dandelion and broadleaf plantain. The objectives of this research were to (1) determine if 2,4-D efficacy is influenced by the divalent cations, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) in spray solution; and (2) determine if adding the adjuvant ammonium sulfate (AMS) to the spray solution can overcome antagonism. Broadleaf plantain and dandelion control was reduced and plant size and mass increased when 2,4-D was applied in a Ca solution in comparison to deionized water. However, 2,4-D antagonism was overcome when AMS was added as an adjuvant to the spray solution. Magnesium caused 2,4-D antagonism on both weed species in one run of the experiment similar to Ca solution and AMS was successful at overcoming antagonism when added to the tank mixture. Some 2,4-D antagonism from Mn was noticed even when AMS was in the tank mix, but Zn fertilizer solutions did not antagonize 2,4-D activity on either weed species. Although divalent cations can antagonize 2,4-D dimethylamine and reduce perennial broadleaf weed control, adding AMS can overcome this antagonism when Ca and Mg are the primary cations in spray solution. Applicators should avoid using Mn fertilizers when applying 2,4-D dimethylamine because AMS did not successfully overcome antagonism.

A field experiment was conducted at Marianna, AR in 2012 and 2013 to test various combinations of (1) soybean production systems: full-season tillage (rye plus deep tillage using a moldboard plow), full season (no rye plus no tillage), late-season tillage (wheat plus deep tillage), and late season (no wheat plus no tillage); (2) soybean cultivars: glufosinate or glyphosate resistant; and (3) four herbicide programs for management of glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth. At soybean harvest, Palmer amaranth control was 95 to 100% when flumioxazin plus pyroxasulfone was applied PRE. In both years full-season tillage and late-season tillage systems in combination with flumioxazin plus pyroxasulfone applied PRE increased Palmer amaranth control over the same systems in the absence of flumioxazin plus pyroxasulfone applied PRE. The addition of deep tillage in the form of a moldboard plow to the full-season and late-season systems reduced Palmer amaranth densities at harvest. Similarly, Palmer amaranth seed production was often lower in the full-season tillage and late-season tillage systems compared with the full-season and late-season no-tillage systems, regardless of soybean cultivar and herbicide programs. Overall, the use of deep tillage in the full-season or late-season systems in combination with a PRE application of flumioxazin plus pyroxasulfone provided greater control of Palmer amaranth, decreasing both density and seed production and increasing soybean grain yields.

The herbicide pinoxaden is a phenylpyrazoline inhibitor of acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase. Research was conducted to determine the effects of pinoxaden (90 g ai ha−1) alone and in combination with herbicide safeners on creeping bentgrass injury as well as perennial ryegrass and roughstalk bluegrass control. Greenhouse experiments determined that herbicide safeners cloquintocet-mexyl, fenchlorazole-ethyl, and mefenpyr-diethyl were more effective in reducing creeping bentgrass injury from pinoxaden than benoxacor, isoxadifen-ethyl, and naphthalic-anhydride. Other experiments determined that creeping bentgrass injury from pinoxaden decreased as rates (0, 23, 45, 68, 90, 225, or 450 g ha−1) of cloquintocet-mexyl, fenchlorazole-ethyl, and mefenpyr-diethyl increased. On the basis of creeping bentgrass responses to various safener rates, safeners were applied at 68 and 450 g ha−1 in additional experiments to evaluate their effects on pinoxaden (90 g ha−1) injury to creeping bentgrass and efficacy against perennial ryegrass and roughstalk bluegrass. In these experiments, safeners mefenpyr-diethyl and cloquintocet-mexyl reduced pinoxaden-induced creeping bentgrass injury (from 25 to ≤ 5%) more than fenchlorazole-ethyl at 2 wk after treatment. Safeners reduced pinoxaden efficacy against roughstalk bluegrass. Perennial ryegrass was controlled > 80% by pinoxaden and herbicide safeners did not reduce control. Field experiments should evaluate pinoxaden in combination with cloquintocet-mexyl and mefenpyr-diethyl to optimize safener : herbicide ratios and rates for creeping bentgrass safety as well as perennial ryegrass and roughtstalk bluegrass control in different climates and seasons.