Biotypes of eastern black nightshade were found in Illinois and Indiana that were not controlled by postemergence applications of imazethapyr. Greenhouse studies were conducted to determine whole-plant responses to the imidazolinone herbicides imazethapyr and imazamox and to the sulfonylurea herbicide primisulfuron-methyl. The Illinois and Indiana resistant biotypes were highly resistant to imazamox and imazethapyr but were not cross-resistant to primisulfuron-methyl. DNA sequencing of acetolactate synthase (ALS) genes showed that the molecular basis for resistance in both resistant biotypes was a single base-pair mutation within Domain C that changed an alanine to a threonine in their encoded enzymes. In vitro enzyme assays showed that the Illinois resistant biotype's ALS enzyme was 789- and 881-fold less sensitive than that of the susceptible biotype to imazamox and imazethapyr, respectively. The Indiana resistant biotype's ALS enzyme was 110- and 158-fold less sensitive than that of the susceptible biotype to imazamox and imazethapyr, respectively. These results are consistent with the amino acid substitution found in the ALS enzyme of both resistant biotypes of eastern black nightshade.

Resistance to protoporphyrinogen oxidase (protox)-inhibiting herbicides was identified in a population of common waterhemp that had been treated with acifluorfen for several years. The protox-resistant biotype of common waterhemp was approximately 34, 82, 8, and 4 times more resistant than a susceptible common waterhemp biotype to acifluorfen, lactofen, fomesafen, and sulfentrazone, respectively. The resistant biotype also showed a high level of resistance to acetolactate synthase–inhibiting herbicides thifensulfuron and imazethapyr but not to glyphosate or paraquat. An organophosphate insecticide was applied with acifluorfen or lactofen to determine if metabolism could be the mechanism of resistance. No differences were observed between resistant plants treated with an organophosphate plus a protox-inhibiting herbicide and plants treated with a protox-inhibiting herbicide alone.

Greenhouse studies were conducted to determine the response of common lambsquarters and velvetleaf to glyphosate applied alone or with 20 g L−1 of ammonium sulfate (AMS). Minimal response of common lambsquarters to glyphosate plus AMS was observed. The GR50 values for velvetleaf decreased dramatically from 451 to 92 g ha−1 for glyphosate applied alone and glyphosate plus AMS, respectively. The addition of AMS did not affect foliar absorption of 14C-glyphosate in common lambsquarters but increased absorption in velvetleaf. A twofold increase in translocation, as a percentage of total 14C-glyphosate absorbed, occurred in velvetleaf with the addition of AMS. Increased control of velvetleaf with glyphosate plus AMS may be partially explained by greater glyphosate absorption and translocation. Increased translocation of glyphosate applied with AMS in velvetleaf was an indirect effect of greater foliar uptake as well as greater partitioning of glyphosate out of the treated leaf.

Absorption, translocation, and metabolism of the herbicide CGA 362622 were studied in cotton, spurred anoda, and smooth pigweed. 14C-labeled CGA 362622 was foliarly applied to cotton at the cotyledon to the one-leaf growth stage or at the two- to three-leaf growth stage and to spurred anoda and smooth pigweed at the four- to six-leaf growth stage. Differential absorption, translocation, and metabolism contributed to the differential tolerance of cotton, spurred anoda, and smooth pigweed to CGA 362622. Rapid translocation and a slow rate of metabolism appear to explain the susceptibility of smooth pigweed. Reduced absorption and translocation as well as rapid metabolism contribute to the CGA 362622 tolerance of cotton at the two growth stages. Limited translocation may explain the intermediate tolerance of spurred anoda to CGA 362622.

A study was undertaken to determine whether the relative leaf stages of common annual weeds and crops could serve as a reliable indicator of the time of weed emergence. Ten annual broadleaved and grass weeds were sown at successive intervals in field corn and soybean at Harrow, ON, Canada, in 1997, 1998, and 1999. All weeds emerging at a particular crop leaf stage were assigned to a cohort. Leaf numbers of the crop and different weed cohorts were recorded at 2- to 3-d intervals up to the eight-leaf stage of corn and the fourth trifoliate of soybean. For each weed species, categorical data analysis revealed a high degree of association between the leaf stage of a crop and the leaf number expected for an individual weed of a given cohort. For example, by the third trifoliate of soybean, most of the weeds emerging with the crop (VE cohort) had 8 to 10 leaves, whereas weeds in the V1, V2, and V3 cohorts averaged about seven, four, and two leaves, respectively. Year to year variation in the correspondence between crop and weed leaf numbers generally was small once variation due to time of weed emergence was removed, with one exception. Dry surface soil conditions during emergence of the VE cohort in corn in 1999 resulted in delayed leaf appearance of many weeds with respect to the crop. The relationship between weed and crop leaf stages can provide information for management decisions in two ways: (1) it indicates the relative time of weed emergence in assessing the need for control, and (2) it indicates the crop stage at which scouting for particular weed leaf stages should occur.

Field experiments were conducted to determine the effect of large crabgrass densities of 0.5 to 8 plants m−1 of row and emergence time on snap bean yield. Large crabgrass was planted either along with snap beans (early) or when the first trifoliate leaf of snap beans was opening (late). Observed yield loss ranged from 46 to 50%, and predicted yield loss ranged from 53 ± 29.3% to 63 ± 18.3%. Relative leaf area was correlated to snap bean yield (r 2 = 0.88 to 0.92). The relative damage coefficient (q), an indication of the competitiveness of large crabgrass with snap bean, was 1.65 ± 1.03 and 1.26 ± 0.72 for early- and late-emerging large crabgrass, respectively. Early-emerging large crabgrass reduced snap bean biomass 10 to 28% and snap bean pod numbers 44 to 60%, depending on the density. Because of intraspecies competition, leaf area index and number of seed for large crabgrass were reduced with increasing density. Emergence of > 2 plants m−1 of large crabgrass with snap beans should be controlled to avoid significant yield loss.

Studies were conducted to identify and characterize different accessions of itchgrass. Seeds were collected in the counties of Aramina, Campinas, Dumont, Igarapava, Jaboticabal, and Ribeirão Preto, all in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Accessions were characterized based on dimensions of their stomata, stomatal index (SI), and length and width of their seed (caryopses and husk). Chromosome number and length also were determined, and accessions were further differentiated using molecular markers (polymerase chain reaction [PCR]). Itchgrass from Ribeirão Preto had much longer and narrower seeds than those from the other locations, and their husks were longer as well. Accessions had similar SIs, both on the abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces. Stomata from Campinas and Igarapava accessions were longer and wider, whereas those from Dumont and Ribeirão Preto were similar and smaller than all others. The accession from Ribeirão Preto is diploid (2n = 20); the rest are polyploid, with the total length of chromosomes smaller than all others. These differences were confirmed by molecular differentiation (PCR).

Studies were conducted to determine the extent of full and partitioned interference of two nutsedge species with tomato. For full interference, the crop and the weed were transplanted in the same container. For belowground interference, tomato and either weed species were grown in the same container, but the canopies were separated. For aboveground interference, tomato and nutsedges were grown in separate containers placed adjacently, whereas for the no-interference treatment, tomato and nutsedge plants were grown in individual containers. Full interference by yellow nutsedge was more detrimental to tomato shoot dry weight accumulation (34% reduction) than was full interference by purple nutsedge (28% reduction). Belowground interference by purple nutsedge reduced tomato shoot dry weight (18%) more than did aboveground interference (9%). Yellow nutsedge interference above- or belowground reduced tomato shoot dry weight to a similar extent (19%). The belowground interference of both nutsedges with tomato resulted in deficient concentrations of nitrate in the sap of tomato (> 18% reduction). The growth of purple nutsedge was influenced more strongly by tomato shading than by belowground interference from the crop, whereas yellow nutsedge growth was equally affected by tomato above- and belowground. According to these results, shoot dry weight accumulation in tomato was affected to the same extent by belowground interference from purple and yellow nutsedge, and the higher effect of full interference by yellow nutsedge may be attributed to increased aboveground competition between tomato and yellow nutsedge.

Five common cocklebur biotypes from southern Minnesota, central Iowa, southern Iowa, and Ohio were grown at the Iowa State University Curtiss Research Farm in 1995 and 1996 to examine intraspecific variations. Maximum plant heights were measured, and anthesis dates and day of bur set were recorded. At the end of the growing season, all plants were excised at the soil surface and weighed. Common cocklebur biotypes did not differ significantly in height. Flowering date was associated strongly with photoperiod and varied little between years within a biotype. But flowering date and bur set date differed among biotypes. The highest dry matter yields occurred in later flowering biotypes.

Growth and reproductive potential with respect to season and photosynthetic gas exchange behavior under elevated (short-term) CO2 at varying temperature, relative humidity (RH), and irradiance levels were investigated in ragweed parthenium (also known as carrot grass and congress grass), a noxious weed in India. Lower values of biomass, relative growth rate, net assimilation rate, crop growth rate, leaf area duration, leaf area index, and numbers of flowers and seeds in winter compared with summer stands showed that ragweed parthenium is greatly suppressed by low temperatures during winter. This was due to constrained vegetative growth, seedling emergence, and seed to flower ratio. The species showed maximum photosynthetic response to temperature at 25 to 35 C, and the net photosynthetic rate was reduced considerably at a low temperature (7 C). These temperatures approximately corresponded to the normal temperatures experienced by summer (25–35 C) and winter (7 C) stands of ragweed parthenium. Elevated CO2 enhanced leaf net photosynthetic efficiency, maximum photosynthetic rate, and water use efficiency (WUE) but decreased the light compensation point for net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate. The interactive effects of elevated CO2 and temperature resulted in a decrease in light-limited and light-saturated net photosynthetic rates and WUE. The interactive effects also reduced an elevated CO2-induced decrease in light compensation point relative to elevated CO2 alone. Stomatal conductance was insensitive to photosynthetic photon flux but was greatly influenced by RH. Leaves of the species may show increasing rates of net photosynthesis with a rise in CO2 and temperature. However, excessive increase in transpiration with temperature, especially at 47 C (noon temperature during summer in the plains of northern India), appears to be disadvantageous for the leaves when conservation of water is of prime importance.

Snap beans are a common processing vegetable whose yield and quality can be reduced when a few weeds emerge with or soon after the crop. The effect of redroot pigweed's emergence time and density on snap bean growth and yield was studied. Redroot pigweed, at four densities, was seeded with snap beans (early) or at the first trifoliate leaf stage (late). In 1998 the yield loss at 8 redroot pigweed plants m−1 row was 42 and 58%, whereas in 1999 it was 39 and 48% for late- and early-planted redroot pigweed, respectively. The effect of redroot pigweed density on snap bean yield loss was predicted with the hyperbolic yield equation. Coefficient A (percent yield loss as weed density approaches infinity), determined from the hyperbolic equation, varied from 47 to 63% and coefficient I (percent yield loss as weed density approaches zero) varied from 10 to 32% depending on the year and time of weed emergence, with the greater values for early-emerging redroot pigweed. Snap bean pod number and biomass were reduced as the density of early-emerging redroot pigweed increased. Regardless of the density, late-emerging redroot pigweed had less effect on snap bean growth and yield than did early-emerging redroot pigweed. The hyperbolic yield loss equation may be useful for growers to predict the effect of redroot pigweed in their fields on snap bean yields.

Greenhouse and growth-chamber experiments were conducted to determine the influence of the ratio of red to far-red (R:FR) radiation and of neutral filtration of plant-available radiation on the vegetative and reproductive growth of selected nightshade species. Exposure of eastern black nightshade and black nightshade to far-red radiation resulted in greater partitioning of resources to stem tissue, resulting in taller plants. Number of flowers, timing of flowering, branching, and biomass production of black nightshade and eastern black nightshade were not influenced by the ratio of red to far-red radiation. Eastern black nightshade shoot and berry dry weight decreased as neutral density shading increased from 0 to 71%. Shoot dry weight decrease was associated with lower stem weight and production of fewer berries per plant. Neutral shading did not reduce leaf weight or leaf area per plant but increased the specific leaf area of eastern black nightshade. Internode elongation of nightshade species into a soybean canopy should primarily be associated with exposure to low R:FR irradiance ratios, whereas the thinner leaves of eastern black nightshade growing under shade should be associated with lower irradiance levels. Both responses are common adaptations of shade-avoiding plants.

Plants of catchweed bedstraw from different Norwegian locations and from three other countries were compared with respect to morphological factors, herbicide sensitivity, and genetic variation. For the morphological comparison of cotyledons, whorls, leaves, and fruits five populations, grown outdoors but sheltered from rain, were used. Plants from Belgium and Sweden showed a high similarity, whereas one Norwegian population differed significantly in nearly all parameters. The same populations were used for a comparison of the sensitivity to the herbicide mecoprop-P. In this study, only slight differences appeared between the five populations. Finally, a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions was performed. The entire sequence of the ITS1 and ITS2 and the 5.8S subunit of ribosomal DNA were obtained from 15 populations (12 from Norway and one each from Sweden, Belgium, and Germany). The sequences had a length between 590 and 662 base pairs; intraspecific length variation was observed. Based on six insertions–deletions and 26 nucleotide substitutions, two DNA types could be distinguished. The first type consisted of eight Norwegian populations, whereas the second one contained the other seven populations including all non-Norwegian populations. The sequence alignments were used to build a phylogenetic tree. The results of the morphological comparison mostly corresponded with the results of the ITS sequence analysis. The variation was only to some extent correlated with the geographic distribution of the populations.

Accurate and precise estimation of weed seed bank populations is critical to studying weed seed bank demographics. Research was conducted over 3 site-years in Montana to (1) examine the spatial distribution of wild oat seed banks on a small scale (1 m2 plots), (2) compare wild oat seed bank density sample means and precision between two soil samplers, and (3) predict the sample area needed to quantify a range of wild oat seed bank densities at several levels of precision. Seed bank sample means obtained with a large sampler (10- by 10-cm box) were greater than means obtained with a small sampler (4.4- or 3.8-cm-diam cylinder) for 15 of 18 seed banks. There was no clear advantage in precision (SE/mean) when sampling seed banks using a large number of small soil samples rather than using a small number of large soil samples. Furthermore, at very low seed bank densities, using a small number of large samples gave better precision. Precision improved as sample number increased for each seed bank at each site-year. High-density seed banks tended to have better precision than low-density seed banks at any given sample number. Seed banks had an aggregated spatial distribution when sampled with either soil sampler. As the desired precision level decreases (becomes more precise), the predicted sample area required increases greatly. A seed bank containing 6,000 seeds m−2 has a predicted sample area of 0.5, 0.7, 1.3, and 2.9% of the total area to obtain precision levels of 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, and 0.2, respectively.

Sixteen field experiments were conducted across Oklahoma to evaluate the effects of MON 37500 time of application on cheat control, and winter wheat injury and yield. Winter wheat injury from MON 37500 applied preemergence (PRE) was slight and was influenced by cumulative precipitation for 10 d after application. Winter wheat injury was more frequent with early vs. late postemergence (POST) applications and was influenced by wheat growth stage and mean, high, and low air temperatures before and after application. Cheat control averaged 75% (n = 16 treatments with four to six replicates) when applied PRE and 88% (n = 126 treatments with four to six replicates) when applied POST. Cheat control from MON 37500 applied POST declined with increasing cheat growth stage at application and with decreasing mean diurnal low temperatures 0 to 14 d and 0 to 21 d before application. MON 37500 applied PRE increased yields 52 and 66% compared with the untreated control in Year 1 and Year 2, averaged over eight experiments each year. MON 37500 applied POST increased wheat yields 68 to 69% compared with the untreated check in Year 1 and Year 2, when averaged over all applications in eight experiments each year. Wheat yields were greater from fall POST applications than from late-winter applications.

Four species of biocontrol insects (knapweed root weevil, lesser knapweed flower weevil, spotted knapweed seedhead moth, and bronze knapweed root borer) were released at a diffuse knapweed site located about 10 km east of the Colorado Front Range. Two other biocontrol agents (banded gall fly and knapweed seed head fly) were already present at this site. Densities of rosettes and flowering plants, seedhead production per plant, and seeds per seedhead on mowed and unmowed areas were studied for 5 yr, 1997–2001. Of the six biocontrols, five (Urophora spp., bronze knapweed root borer, knapweed root weevil, and lesser knapweed flower weevil) obtained sizable densities relative to weed abundance. Diffuse knapweed declined from 8.3% in absolute cover in June 2000 to 1.9% by September 2001. Vegetation transects closest to the insect release areas showed the largest declines, with diffuse knapweed disappearing entirely on one transect. In contrast, diffuse knapweed abundance at a nearby prairie increased during the same interval from an absolute cover value of 14.5 to 17%. Seed production of diffuse knapweed on the insect release site declined from nearly 5,000 seeds m−2 in 1997 to less than 100 seeds m−2 in 2001. Lesser knapweed flower weevil larvae appeared responsible for much of the seed reduction, whereas adults of this species were effective in damaging bolting plants. The extent to which grazing removal and individual insect species contributed to this reduction in diffuse knapweed abundance cannot be identified from this study. These results support the contention that a significant reduction in abundance of diffuse knapweed using insects is possible at least in some regions of the western United States.

A growing number of invasive animal populations—both vertebrate and invertebrate—have been completely eradicated. These projects usually have been on islands, but some have been on large continental areas, and many technologies have been used. Total eradication of plant populations has been reported less frequently, but there are nevertheless many successes. Though biological features may tend to make plant eradication more difficult than animal eradication, the difference in the number of success stories is probably more due to greater enthusiasm, persistence, and perhaps resources devoted to animal eradication than to biological differences. There is every reason to believe that many plant populations could be eradicated, particularly if eradication campaigns were coupled with a monitoring system that detects invasions early. Features conducive to successful eradication are (1) resources must be adequate, and there must be a commitment to see the project through to completion; (2) clear lines of authority must be established; (3) the biology of the species must be appropriate; (4) the target species must be detectable at low densities; and (5) subsequent intensive management of the system, such as for restoration, may be necessary. For success in some eradication campaigns, rapid reinvasion must be unlikely; in other instances the economics of the situation may make the attempt worthwhile even if reinvasion ensues. A failed eradication effort need not be a mistake, particularly if the eradication method used would have been utilized in traditional maintenance management. Further, the inspirational value of an eradication campaign and its enlistment of citizen support may help sensitize the public to the entire problem of invasive introduced species. Expanded eradication efforts can potentially effect enormous ecological and economic savings.

Plant invasions that arise from human introductions of new species to a region, or from range expansion of some native plant species, can profoundly affect biodiversity and alter the structure and function of ecosystems. Although preventive strategies may be an effective way to limit plant invasions, they are difficult to achieve because adequate descriptions of biological and environmental characteristics are often lacking, and truly predictive models of invasive biology have been elusive. On the basis of a history of repeated plant introductions and the absence of a general predictive theory, it may be best to assume that plant invasions will continue. This paper explores ways to empirically study and to predict plant invasions through a study of the invasion process. Several approaches are explored, such as species demography, DNA analysis, and geographic information system reconstructions, to characterize source and satellite populations and factors that influence the spread of these populations.

It is becoming increasingly clear that prescriptions for rangeland weed control are not sustainable because they treat the symptoms of weeds rather than their cause. Future restoration of invasive plant–infested rangeland must be based on ecological principles and concepts that provide for predictable outcomes. A generalized objective for ecologically based weed management is to develop and maintain a healthy plant community that is largely invasion resistant. Successional management based on ecological principles involves modifying the processes controlling the three general causes of succession: disturbance, colonization, and species performance. The processes controlling plant community dynamics can be modified to allow predictable successional trajectories. Successional management can lead to biomass optimization models for grazing management, spread vector analysis, and using resource availability to direct weedy plant communities toward those that are desired. Our challenge is to develop ecological principles on which management can be based.