Cropping system characteristics such as tillage intensity, crop identity, crop-livestock integration and the application of off-farm synthetic inputs influence weed abundance, plant community composition and crop-weed competition. The resulting plant community, in turn, has species-specific effects on soil microbial communities which can impact the growth and competitive ability of subsequent plants, completing a plant–soil feedback (PSF) loop. Farming systems that minimize the negative impacts of PSFs on subsequent crop growth can increase the sustainability of the farming enterprise. This study sought to assess the individual and combined impact of the cropping system (certified organic-grazed, certified organic till and conventional no-till) and crop sequence [pairwise rotations with safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum)] on the PSF magnitude and direction. All cropping systems followed the same 5-year rotation and had completed one full rotation before soil was sampled. In a greenhouse setting, a sterile soil mix was inoculated with field soil collected from all systems and three crops. The PSF study consisted of two stages (conditioning and response phases) that mimicked the rotation stages occurring in the field. PSFs were calculated by comparing the biomass of the response phase plants grown in inoculated and uninoculated soils. The farm management system affected PSFs, inferring that tillage reduction can encourage more positive PSFs. Crop sequence did not affect PSF but interacted strongly with the farm system. As such, the effects of the farming system on PSFs are best illustrated when taken into account with the identity of the previous and current crops of a cropping sequence.

Availability of organic foods has been increasing in the United States due to consumer demand for food produced with a lower environmental footprint. Surveys show that organic consumers view organic food as safer and of higher quality, but a number of food-borne outbreaks have been linked to organic produce in recent years. This outcome suggests that improved food safety protocols are needed to ensure food safety along organic food chains. In this study, model integrated crop–livestock organic systems were established in three states (Iowa, Minnesota and Pennsylvania) to evaluate biological performance and food safety aspects. Organically raised cattle and their feed/forage, feces, hide and meat were examined for the presence of two pathogens, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. Results confirmed that E. coli O157:H7 was not isolated on any hide or meat samples. Across all sites, the prevalence rate for E. coli O157:H7 on feed/forage and fecal matter was 9.43 and 7.26%, respectively. Salmonella spp. was isolated from 1.89, 3.33 and 18.6% of feed, fecal and hide samples, respectively. Salmonella spp. was not detected on any meat samples. While Salmonella spp. rates on hides were greater than those in feed and fecal samples, the prevalence rate of both pathogens on cattle hides was lower than in previous studies. The use of an organic fly repellent containing essential oils in this study would need to be investigated further to determine any correlation between its use and lower pathogen rates on hides. Feed/forage was more likely to test positive for E. coli O157:H7 from June through August, indicating the importance of strict sanitary measures to prevent feed contamination during summer months. These results suggest that careful adherence to food safety management strategies can help reduce the risk of bacterial contamination in integrated crop–livestock systems.

Organic grain producers are interested in reducing tillage to conserve soil and decrease labor and fuel costs. We examined agronomic and economic tradeoffs associated with alternative strategies for reducing tillage frequency and intensity in a cover crop–soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) sequence within a corn (Zea mays L.)–soybean–spelt (Triticum spelta L.) organic cropping system experiment in Pennsylvania. Tillage-based soybean production preceded by a cover crop mixture of annual ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) and forage radish (Raphanus sativus L.) interseeded into corn grain (Z. mays L.) was compared with reduced-tillage soybean production preceded by roller-crimped cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) that was sown after corn silage. Total aboveground weed biomass did not differ between soybean production strategies. Each strategy, however, was characterized by high inter-annual variability in weed abundance. Tillage-based soybean production marginally increased grain yield by 0.28 Mg ha−1 compared with reduced-tillage soybean. A path model of soybean yield indicated that soybean stand establishment and weed biomass were primary drivers of yield, but soybean production strategy had a measurable effect on yields due to factors other than within-season weed–crop competition. Cumulative tillage frequency and intensity were quantified for each cover crop—sequence using the Soil Tillage Intensity Rating (STIR) index. The reduced-tillage soybean sequence resulted in 50% less soil disturbance compared to tillage-based soybean sequence across study years. Finally, enterprise budget comparisons showed that the reduced-tillage soybean sequence resulted in lower input costs than the tillage-based soybean sequence but was approximately $114 ha−1 less profitable because of lower average yields.

The intensification of Brazil's beef cattle production system can involve different strategies to increase beef production while reducing deforestation in the Amazon biome and mitigating climate change. This study economically evaluates a cooperating beef farm in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil's Amazon biome over three crop years (2015–16 to 2017–18), transitioning from an extensive grazing system to a semi-intensive system using five sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) practices. These five practices include (1) grain supplementation for cattle, (2) pasture fertilization, (3) pasture re-seeding, (4) crop–livestock integration (CLI) and (5) irrigated and fertilized pasture that is rotationally grazed. The relative costs of these five SAI strategies used on this cooperating farm are compared. The adoption of SAI strategies increased beef productivity 5.7% (228–241 kg live-weight sold per hectare) and gradually improved net farm income by ~130% over the 3 years of transition (−US$94.79 to $29.80 ha−1). Grain supplementation (US$188 ha−1) had the cheapest cost per hectare, followed by pasture fertilization (US$477 ha−1) and pasture reseeding (US$650 ha−1). The most costly practice was in-ground irrigation of fenced rotationally grazed pasture (US$1600 ha−1) with the second most costly being CLI (US$672 ha−1). Despite adoption challenges of these SAI practices, past research confirm these five practices can increase beef productivity and profitability while reducing carbon footprint. Regardless of the cost per hectare of each practice, farmer adoption can be improved through education, support and incentives from both the public and private sectors.

This paper examines how certified organic cotton initiatives (COCIs) influence community capitals in rural Peru, Tanzania and India using the community capitals framework (CCF). Case study analyses, including qualitative interviews of farmers, expert interviews and participatory observations, were conducted in Northern Peru, Northern Tanzania and Eastern India. The results show slight changes in community capitals in Peru, while comprehensive changes and spiraling-up effects were triggered by certified organic cotton farming initiatives in Tanzania and India. These community developments strongly depended on set measures, such as the extent of (1) partnership (e.g., contract farming), (2) input support (e.g., seeds, loans, community infrastructure), (3) capacity building (through training and advisory services), (4) group formation and (5) formation of cooperatives. Favorable environmental conditions and supporting local institutions facilitated spiraling-up effects, while social preconditions (e.g., gender inequality) strongly limited these effects. The research showed that COCIs have considerable potential to trigger spiraling-up effects in rural communities. However, the capacity strongly depends on the respective initiative and its ability to involve and empower farmers, i.e., to build up human and social capital.

Climate change negatively impacts rice productivity in different parts of Africa. As a matter of necessity, farmers must respond to changing the climate by choosing adaptation strategies that increase their productivities. Incidentally, studies that documented the impact of climate change adaptation actions of farmers on rice productivity are few. This study therefore analyzed the impact of climate change adaptation decisions of farmers on the profitability of rice production using cross-sectional data gathered from 240 rice farmers selected from Ebonyi State, an important rice-producing State in Nigeria, Africa's most populous country. Using descriptive statistics, multivariate probit regression, instrumental variable regression and endogenous treatment effect model, the study revealed that the common adaptation actions of rice farmers involved adoption of minimum tillage, bond and drainage, fertilizer, crop diversification, livelihood diversification, improved rice varieties, pesticide, nursery, and adjusting planting and harvesting dates. The study found several significant interactions between the choice of climate change adaptation actions and socio-economic, farm, institutional and location characteristics of rice farmers. The result further revealed that multiple adaptation decisions of farmers significantly increased returns to scale and profit of rice production. The study concludes that adaptation decisions are effective in increasing the profitability and returns to scale of rice production in the area and other regions with similar geographical, meteorological and socio-economic contexts.

This study develops a decision-making procedure to help policymakers compare alternative patterns for sustainable diets by reaching a compromise among three criteria: socio-economic perspective, health and environment (including carbon and water footprints). An Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was performed in several stages. First, a total of 25 stakeholders (members of organizations on the Valencia Food Policy Council) evaluated criteria that are relevant to the sustainability of diets. Secondly, a workshop with 14 experts from different backgrounds evaluated by consensus four dietary alternatives: Mediterranean, flexitarian, pescatarian and vegan. In terms of environment, experts gave priority to the vegan diet. However, the Mediterranean diet pattern (MDP) appeared, according to the process, as the most suitable pattern from the holistic perspective that integrates all relevant criteria. The MDP was ranked first in terms of the health criterion and the socio-economic perspective. These include culture, affordability, social impact and local production as decision elements that food policy advisory bodies take into consideration to define sustainable diets.

Organic grain producers are interested in interseeding cover crops into corn (Zea mays L.) in regions that have a narrow growing season window for post-harvest establishment of cover crops. A field experiment was replicated across 2 years on three commercial organic farms in Pennsylvania to compare the effects of drill- and broadcast-interseeding to standard grower practices, which included post-harvest seeding cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) at the more southern location and winter fallow at the more northern locations. Drill- and broadcast-interseeding treatments occurred just after last cultivation and used a cover crop mixture of annual ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot] + orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) + forage radish (Raphanus sativus L. ssp. longipinnatus). Higher mean fall cover crop biomass and forage radish abundance (% of total) was observed in drill-interseeding treatments compared with broadcast-interseeding. However, corn grain yield and weed suppression and N retention in late-fall and spring were similar among interseeding treatments, which suggests that broadcast-interseeding at last cultivation has the potential to produce similar production and conservation benefits at lower labor and equipment costs in organic systems. Post-harvest seeding cereal rye resulted in greater spring biomass production and N retention compared with interseeded cover crops at the southern location, whereas variable interseeding establishment success and dominance of winter-killed forage radish produced conditions that increased the likelihood of N loss at more northern locations. Additional research is needed to contrast conservation benefits and management tradeoffs between interseeding and post-harvest establishment methods.

In 2010, a split-plot experiment was set up in Poland in order to determine the follow-up effect of the white clover intercropping system on biomass and morphology of willow. In 2010 willow was planted in a pure stand and intercropped with white clover. In 2013, after willow achieved a proper growth stage (2010–2012), plant measurements were made in the years 2013–2014. The experiment was carried out with two factors in a split-plot design: the first factor was the cultivation system (main plot) (a) without white clover and (b) with white clover, and the second factor was three basket willow clones: 1047, 1052 and 1057 (subplot). The investigated characters were biomass yield, height of plants, shoot diameter and plant loss. No N fertilization or pesticides were used. The intercropping system (willow with white clover) reduced the number of willow plants, but the willow height was lower in the pure stand (368 cm) than in the intercropping system (409 cm). The highest dry matter yield (30.8 t ha−1), crude ash yield (434 kg ha−1) and macronutrient (N, P, K and Mg) content were obtained with clone 1047.

High yields and crop quality in organic small grain production can only be achieved through successful management of nitrogen. Experienced farmers and advisors in the Northeastern U.S. were asked to discuss the most pressing challenges in organic nitrogen management for organic small grain systems, with a particular focus on legume green manures (LGMs). Eighteen semi-structured interviews with 12 farmers and eight advisors were conducted between December 2017 and March 2018. The farmers employed a range of materials and practices for fulfilling the nitrogen fertility needs of their crops, including LGMs, animal manures and organic fertilizers. Farmers and advisors identified cost, overdependence on external nitrogen sources, nitrogen source access, diversifying rotations, weed management and predicting nitrogen mineralization of organic residues as major challenges in nitrogen management. Results indicated that cost-effectiveness in nitrogen management is essential, but that farmers consider additional factors, such as weed pressure and long-term soil health effects, when choosing nitrogen sources or practices. Legume-based nitrogen fertility is promising for small grain systems in this region, but structural challenges, such as the lack of animal agriculture proximal to grain operations, and limited cash crop markets, impede the development of diverse rotations that feature long-term legume sods. Recommendations include additional field-based research, including on-farm, participatory LGM studies as one avenue. Programming and educational outreach should focus on bolstering farmers' understanding of nitrogen mineralization of incorporated LGM residues, as well as their ability to anticipate and respond to sources of variability in LGM systems.

Currently, the unchecked increase in human population results in increased demand for agricultural lands. Growing two or more crops simultaneously is one of the mechanisms to reduce this problem. A field experiment was conducted in northwestern Ethiopia during 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons. Two legume crops [haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and lupine (Lupinus angustifolius)] were intercropped with finger millet (Eleusine coracana) using two intercrop planting methods (row and mixture) and three finger millet-legume planting ratios (100.0%:75.0%, 100.0%:50.0% and 100.0%:25.0% of the respective recommended seed rate of sole crops). Two sole crop finger millets (planted in rows and broadcast) and two sole legume crops (haricot bean and lupine) were included as checks. The experiment comprised a randomized complete block design with three replications. Results indicated intercropped finger millet and total land output yield from finger millet-haricot bean row intercropping at a 100:50 planting ratio and sole finger millet planted in a row improved better yield stability. Finger millet-haricot bean row intercropping at a 100:50 planting ratio also resulted in higher grain yields of the component crops, area time equivalent ratio (1.34), relative production (38.1%) and economic (314.0%) efficiencies with a relatively lower component crop competitive ratio. Thus, this cropping system offered increased productivity and economic return and is a viable option for increasing household food security.