The 2175Å bump is a prominent absorption feature at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths in dust extinction and attenuation curves. Understanding the relative strength of this feature is important for making accurate dust corrections at both low- and high-redshift. This feature is postulated to arise from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) dust grains; however, the carrier has not been definitively established. We present results on the correlation between the 2175Å feature and PAH abundances in a spatially-resolved manner for 15 local galaxies in the PHANGS-JWST survey that have NUV and mid-IR imaging data from Swift/UVOT and JWST/MIRI, respectively. We find a moderate positive correlation between the 2175Å feature strength and PAH abundance (Spearman’s coefficient, $0.3 \lesssim \rho \lesssim 0.5$), albeit with large intrinsic scatter. However, most of this trend can be attributed to a stronger negative correlation of both quantities with SFR surface density and specific-SFR (proxies of ionising radiation; $\rho\sim-0.6$). The latter trends are consistent with previous findings that both the 2175Å carrier and PAHs are small grains that are easily destroyed by UV photons, although the proxy for PAH abundance (based on photometry) could also be influenced by dust heating. When controlling for SFR surface density, we find weaker correlations between the 2175Å feature and PAH abundances ($\rho \lesssim 0.3$), disfavouring a direct link. However, analyses based on spectroscopic (instead of photometric) measurements of the 2175Å feature and PAH features are required to verify our findings. No significant trends with gas-phase metallicity or galactocentric radii are found for the 2175Å feature and PAHs; however, the metallicity range of our sample is limited ($8.40 \lt 12+\log[\mathrm{O/H}] \lt 8.65$). We provide prescriptions for the strength of the 2175Å feature and PAHs in local massive (metal-rich) galaxies with SFR surface density and specific-SFR; however, the former should be used with caution due to the fact that bump strengths measured from Swift/UVOT are expected to be underestimated.

The data volumes generated by theWidefield ASKAP L-band Legacy All-sky Blind surveY atomic hydrogen (Hi) survey using the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) necessitate greater automation and reliable automation in the task of source finding and cataloguing. To this end, we introduce and explore a novel deep learning framework for detecting low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) Hi sources in an automated fashion. Specifically, our proposed method provides an automated process for separating true Hi detections from false positives when used in combination with the source finding application output candidate catalogues. Leveraging the spatial and depth capabilities of 3D convolutional neural networks, our method is specifically designed to recognize patterns and features in three-dimensional space, making it uniquely suited for rejecting false-positive sources in low SNR scenarios generated by conventional linear methods. As a result, our approach is significantly more accurate in source detection and results in considerably fewer false detections compared to previous linear statistics-based source finding algorithms. Performance tests using mock galaxies injected into real ASKAP data cubes reveal our method’s capability to achieve near-100% completeness and reliability at a relatively low integrated SNR $\sim3-5$. An at-scale version of this tool will greatly maximise the science output from the upcoming widefield Hi surveys.

We carry out timing and spectral studies of the Be/X-ray binary pulsar GX 304-1 using NuStar and XMM-Newton observations. We construct the long-term spin period evolution of the pulsar which changes from a long-term spin-up ($\sim1.3 \times 10^{-13}$ Hz s$^{-1}$) to a long-term spin-down ($\sim-3.4 \times 10^{-14}$ Hz s$^{-1}$) trend during a low luminosity state ($\sim10^{34-35}$ erg s$^{-1}$). A prolonged low luminosity regime ($L_X \sim 10^{34-35}$ erg s$^{-1}$) was detected during 2005–2010 and spanning nearly five years since 2018 December. The XMM-Newton and NuStar spectra can be described with a power law plus blackbody model having an estimated luminosity of $\sim2.5 \times 10^{33}$ and $\sim3.6 \times 10^{33}$ erg s$^{-1}$, respectively. The inferred radius of the blackbody emission is about 100–110 m which suggests a polar-cap origin of this component. From long-term ultraviolet observations of the companion star, an increase in the ultraviolet signatures is detected preceding the X-ray outbursts. The spectral energy distribution of the companion star is constructed which provides a clue of possible UV excess when X-ray outbursts were detected from the neutron star compared to the quiescent phase. We explore plausible mechanisms to explain the long-term spin-down and extended low luminosity manifestation in this pulsar. We find that sustained accretion from a cold disc may explain the prolonged low luminosity state of the pulsar since December 2018 but the pulsar was undergoing normal accretion during the low luminosity period spanning 2005–2010.

Asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars play a significant role in our understanding of the origin of the elements. They contribute to the abundances of C, N, and approximately 50% of the abundances of the elements heavier than iron. An aspect often neglected in studies of AGB stars is the impact of a stellar companion on AGB stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis. In this study, we update the stellar abundances of AGB stars in the binary population synthesis code binary_c and calibrate our treatment of the third dredge-up using observations of Galactic carbon stars. We model stellar populations of low- to intermediate-mass stars at solar-metallicity and examine the stellar wind contributions to C, N, O, Sr, Ba, and Pb yields at binary fractions between 0 and 1. For a stellar population with a binary fraction of 0.7, we find $\sim$20–25% less C and s-process elements ejected than from a population composed of only single stars, and we find little change in the N and O yields. We also compare our models with observed abundances from Ba stars and find our models can reproduce most Ba star abundances, but our population estimates a higher frequency of Ba stars with a surface [Ce/Y] > $+0.2\,$dex. Our models also predict the rare existence of Ba stars with masses $ \gt 10\,\textrm{M}_{\odot}$.

The initial mass function (IMF) is a construct that describes the distribution of stellar masses for a newly formed population of stars. It is a fundamental element underlying all of star and galaxy formation and has been the subject of extensive investigation for more than 60 yr. In the past few decades, there has been a growing, and now substantial, body of evidence supporting the need for a variable IMF. In this light, it is crucial to investigate the IMF’s characteristics across different spatial scales and to understand the factors driving its variability. We make use of spatially resolved spectroscopy to examine the high-mass IMF slope of star-forming galaxies within the SAMI survey. By applying the Kennicutt method and stellar population synthesis models, we estimated both the spaxel-resolved ($\alpha_{res}$) and galaxy-integrated ($\alpha_{int}$) high-mass IMF slopes of these galaxies. Our findings indicate that the resolved and integrated IMF slopes exhibit a near 1:1 relationship for $\alpha_{int}\gtrsim -2.7$. We observe a wide range of $\alpha_{res}$ distributions within galaxies. To explore the sources of this variability, we analyse the relationships between the resolved and integrated IMF slopes and both the star formation rate (SFR) and SFR surface density ($\Sigma_{\textrm{SFR}}$). Our results reveal a strong correlation where flatter/steeper slopes are associated with higher/lower SFR and $\Sigma_{\textrm{SFR}}$. This trend is qualitatively similar for resolved and global scales. Additionally, we identify a mass dependency in the relationship with SFR, though none was found in the relation between the resolved slope and $\Sigma_{\textrm{SFR}}$. These findings suggest an scenario where the formation of high-mass stars is favoured in regions with more concentrated star formation. This may be a consequence of the reduced fragmentation of molecular clouds, which nonetheless accrete more material.

We have conducted a widefield, wideband, snapshot survey using the Australian SKA Pathfinder (ASKAP) referred to as the Rapid ASKAP Continuum Survey (RACS). RACS covers $\approx 90$% of the sky, with multiple observing epochs in three frequency bands sampling the ASKAP frequency range of 700–1 800 MHz. This paper describes the third major epoch at 1 655.5 MHz, RACS-high, and the subsequent imaging and catalogue data release. The RACS-high observations at 1 655.5 MHz are otherwise similar to the previously released RACS-mid (at 1 367.5 MHz) and were calibrated and imaged with minimal changes. From the 1 493 images covering the sky up to declination $\approx +48^\circ$, we present a catalogue of 2 677 509 radio sources. The catalogue is constructed from images with a median root-mean-square noise of $\approx 195$ $\unicode{x03BC}$Jy PSF$^{-1}$ (point-spread function) and a median angular resolution of $11{\stackrel{\prime\prime}{\raise-0pt\hbox{.}}}8 \times 8{\stackrel{\prime\prime}{\raise-0pt\hbox{.}}}1$. The overall reliability of the catalogue is estimated to be 99.18%, and we find a decrease in reliability as angular resolution improves. We estimate the brightness scale to be accurate to 10%, and the astrometric accuracy to be within $\approx 0{\stackrel{\prime\prime}{\raise-0pt\hbox{.}}}6$ in right ascension and $\approx 0{\stackrel{\prime\prime}{\raise-0pt\hbox{.}}}7$ in declination after correction of a systematic declination-dependent offset. All data products from RACS-high, including calibrated visibility datasets, images from individual observations, full-sensitivity mosaics, and the all-sky catalogue are available at the CSIRO ASKAP Science Data Archive.

We have carried out a detailed investigation of eclipsing binary star NT Aps using high cadence photometric observations from the TESS satellite and time-series spectra from EFOSC2 at ESO’s New Technology Telescope.a We have, for the first time, determined precise system parameters for this W UMa-type late-type contact binary. Our analysis indicates that the system is composed of two solar-like stars with mass ratio of $q=0.31$ and orbital period of 0.29475540 $\pm$ 0.00000035 days. These values are typical for common envelope contact binaries. However, the system does not exhibit strong magnetic activity in the form of frequent flaring and large starspots, even if large flare rates have been earlier predicted for this system. This lack of strong magnetic activity further strengthens the earlier indications that the contact binaries are less magnetically active than those of detached chromospherically active binaries with similar parameters.

We present the first results from a new backend on the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder, the Commensal Realtime ASKAP Fast Transient COherent (CRACO) upgrade. CRACO records millisecond time resolution visibility data, and searches for dispersed fast transient signals including fast radio bursts (FRB), pulsars, and ultra-long period objects (ULPO). With the visibility data, CRACO can localise the transient events to arcsecond-level precision after the detection. Here, we describe the CRACO system and report the result from a sky survey carried out by CRACO at 110-ms resolution during its commissioning phase. During the survey, CRACO detected two FRBs (including one discovered solely with CRACO, FRB 20231027A), reported more precise localisations for four pulsars, discovered two new RRATs, and detected one known ULPO, GPM J1839 $-$10, through its sub-pulse structure. We present a sensitivity calibration of CRACO, finding that it achieves the expected sensitivity of 11.6 Jy ms to bursts of 110 ms duration or less. CRACO is currently running at a 13.8 ms time resolution and aims at a 1.7 ms time resolution before the end of 2024. The planned CRACO has an expected sensitivity of 1.5 Jy ms to bursts of 1.7 ms duration or less and can detect $10\times$ more FRBs than the current CRAFT incoherent sum system (i.e. 0.5 $-$2 localised FRBs per day), enabling us to better constrain the models for FRBs and use them as cosmological probes.

Spiral galaxies are ubiquitous in the local Universe. However, the properties of spiral arms in them are still not well studied, and there is even less information concerning spiral structure in distant galaxies. We aim to measure the most general parameters of spiral arms in remote galaxies and trace their changes with redshift. We perform photometric decomposition, including spiral arms, for 159 galaxies from the HST COSMOS and JWST CEERS and JADES surveys, which are imaged in optical and near-infrared rest-frame wavelengths. We confirm that, in our representative sample of spiral galaxies, the pitch angles increase, and the azimuthal lengths decrease with increasing redshift, implying that the spiral structure becomes more tightly wound over time. For the spiral-to-total luminosity ratio and the spiral width-to-disc scale length ratio, we find that band-shifting effects can be as significant as, or even stronger than, evolutionary effects. Additionally, we find that spiral structure becomes more asymmetric at higher redshifts.

We introduce adaptive particle refinement for compressible smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH). SPH calculations have the natural advantage that resolution follows mass, but this is not always optimal. Our implementation allows the user to specify local regions of the simulation that can be more highly resolved. We test our implementation on practical applications including a circumbinary disc, a planet embedded in a disc, and a flyby. By comparing with equivalent globally high-resolution calculations, we show that our method is accurate and fast, with errors in the mass accreted onto sinks of less than 9% and speed ups of 1.07–6.62$\times$ for the examples shown. Our method is adaptable and easily extendable, for example, with multiple refinement regions or derefinement.

With wide-field phased array feed technology, the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) is ideally suited to search for seemingly rare radio transient sources that are difficult to discover previous-generation narrow-field telescopes. The Commensal Real-time ASKAP Fast Transient (CRAFT) Survey Science Project has developed instrumentation to continuously search for fast radio transients (duration $\lesssim$ 1 s) with ASKAP, with a particular focus on finding and localising fast radio bursts (FRBs). Since 2018, the CRAFT survey has been searching for FRBs and other fast transients by incoherently adding the intensities received by individual ASKAP antennas, and then correcting for the impact of frequency dispersion on these short-duration signals in the resultant incoherent sum (ICS) in real time. This low-latency detection enables the triggering of voltage buffers, which facilitates the localisation of the transient source and the study of spectro-polarimetric properties at high time resolution. Here we report the sample of 43 FRBs discovered in this CRAFT/ICS survey to date. This includes 22 FRBs that had not previously been reported: 16 FRBs localised by ASKAP to $\lesssim 1$ arcsec and 6 FRBs localised to $\sim 10$ arcmin. Of the new arcsecond-localised FRBs, we have identified and characterised host galaxies (and measured redshifts) for 11. The median of all 30 measured host redshifts from the survey to date is $z=0.23$. We summarise results from the searches, in particular those contributing to our understanding of the burst progenitors and emission mechanisms, and on the use of bursts as probes of intervening media. We conclude by foreshadowing future FRB surveys with ASKAP using a coherent detection system that is currently being commissioned. This will increase the burst detection rate by a factor of approximately ten and also the distance to which ASKAP can localise FRBs.

Galaxy morphology in stellar light can be described by a series of ‘non-parametric’ or ‘morphometric’ parameters, such as concentration-asymmetry-smoothness, Gini, $M_{20}$, and Sérsic fit. These parameters can be applied to column density maps of atomic hydrogen (H 1). The H 1 distribution is susceptible to perturbations by environmental effects, for example, intergalactic medium pressure and tidal interactions. Therefore, H 1 morphology can potentially identify galaxies undergoing ram-pressure stripping or tidal interactions. We explore three fields in the WALLABY Pilot H 1 survey and identify perturbed galaxies based on a k-nearest neighbour (kNN) algorithm using an H 1 morphometric feature space. For training, we used labelled galaxies in the combined NGC 4808 and NGC 4636 fields with six H 1 morphometrics to train and test a kNN classifier. The kNN classification is proficient in classifying perturbed galaxies with all metrics – accuracy, precision, and recall – at 70–80%. By using the kNN method to identify perturbed galaxies in the deployment field, the NGC 5044 mosaic, we find that in most regards, the scaling relations of perturbed and unperturbed galaxies have similar distribution in the scaling relations of stellar mass versus star formation rate and the Baryonic Tully–Fisher relation, but the H 1 and stellar mass relation flatter than of the unperturbed galaxies. Our results for NGC 5044 provide a prediction for future studies on the fraction of galaxies undergoing interaction in this catalogue and to build a training sample to classify such galaxies in the full WALLABY survey.

We present the results of searching for new dwarf galaxies in the Local Volume. We found 40 satellite candidates in the double-virial-radius regions of 20 Milky Way-like and Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC)-like galaxies in the southern sky using DESI Legacy Imaging Surveys, 10 of which were known but not clearly associated with the Local Volume previously. Among the 40 satellite candidates, 8 are supposed members of the NGC 6744 group and 13 are located in the vicinity of the Sombrero galaxy. Based on seven companions to the giant spiral galaxy NGC 6744 with measured radial velocities, we estimate that the total mass of the group is $M_T = (1.88\pm0.71)\times 10^{12}\,\mathrm{M}_{\odot}$ and the total mass-to-K-luminosity ratio $M_T/L_K = (16.1\pm6.0) \mathrm{M}_{\odot}/\mathrm{L}_{\odot}$. We reproduce a distribution of 68 early- and late-type galaxies in the Local Volume situated around the Sombrero, noting their strong morphological segregation and also the presence of a foreground diffuse association of dwarf galaxies at 8 degrees to SE from the Sombrero.

The single pulses of PSR J1921+1419 were examined in detail using high-sensitivity observations from the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope (FAST) at a central frequency of 1250 MHz. The high-sensitivity observations indicate that the pulsar exhibits two distinct emission modes, which are classified as strong and weak modes based on the intensity of the single pulses. In our observations, the times spent in both modes are nearly equal, and each is about half of the total observation time. The minimum duration of both modes is $1\,P$ and the maximum duration is $13\,P$, where P is the pulsar spin period. Additionally, the mean intensity of the weak mode is less than half of that of the strong mode. Notably, the switching between these modes demonstrates a clear quasi-periodicity with a modulation period of approximately $10 \pm 2\,P$. An analysis of the polarisation properties of both modes indicates that they originate from the same region within the magnetosphere of the pulsar. Finally, the viewing geometry was analysed based on the kinematical effects.

Next generations of radio surveys are expected to identify tens of millions of new sources and identifying and classifying their morphologies will require novel and more efficient methods. Self-organising maps (SOMs), a type of unsupervised machine learning, can be used to address this problem. We map 251 259 multi-Gaussian sources from Rapid ASKAP Continuum Survey (RACS) onto a SOM with discrete neurons. Similarity metrics, such as Euclidean distances, can be used to identify the best-matching neuron or unit (BMU) for each input image. We establish a reliability threshold by visually inspecting a subset of input images and their corresponding BMU. We label the individual neurons based on observed morphologies, and these labels are included in our value-added catalogue of RACS sources. Sources for which the Euclidean distance to their BMU is $\lesssim$5 (accounting for approximately 79$\%$ of sources) have an estimated $ \gt $90% reliability for their SOM-derived morphological labels. This reliability falls to less than 70$\%$ at Euclidean distances $\gtrsim$7. Beyond this threshold it is unlikely that the morphological label will accurately describe a given source. Our catalogue of complex radio sources from RACS with their SOM-derived morphological labels from this work will be made publicly available.

Observations of the intracluster medium (ICM) in the outskirts of galaxy clusters reveal shocks associated with gas accretion from the cosmic web. Previous work based on non-radiative cosmological hydrodynamical simulations have defined the shock radius, $r_{\text{shock}}$, using the ICM entropy, $K \propto T/{n_\mathrm{e}}^{2/3}$, where T and $n_{\text{e}}$ are the ICM temperature and electron density, respectively; the $r_{\text{shock}}$ is identified with either the radius at which K is a maximum or at which its logarithmic slope is a minimum. We investigate the relationship between $r_{\text{shock}}$, which is driven by gravitational hydrodynamics and shocks, and the splashback radius, $r_{\text{splash}}$, which is driven by the gravitational dynamics of cluster stars and dark matter and is measured from their mass profile. Using 324 clusters from The Three Hundred project of cosmological galaxy formation simulations, we quantify statistically how $r_{\text{shock}}$ relates to $r_{\text{splash}}$. Depending on our definition, we find that the median $r_{\text{shock}} \simeq 1.38 r_{\text{splash}} (2.58 R_{200})$ when K reaches its maximum and $r_{\text{shock}} \simeq 1.91 r_{\text{splash}} (3.54 R_{200})$ when its logarithmic slope is a minimum; the best-fit linear relation increases as $r_{\text{shock}} \propto 0.65 r_{\text{splash}}$. We find that $r_{\text{shock}}/R_{200}$ and $r_{\text{splash}}/R_{200}$ anti-correlate with virial mass, $M_{200}$, and recent mass accretion history, and $r_{\text{shock}}/r_{\text{splash}}$ tends to be larger for clusters with higher recent accretion rates. We discuss prospects for measuring $r_{\text{shock}}$ observationally and how the relationship between $r_{\text{shock}}$ and $r_{\text{splash}}$ can be used to improve constraints from radio, X-ray, and thermal Sunyaev-Zeldovich surveys that target the interface between the cosmic web and clusters.

Weak-line T Tauri stars (WTTS) exhibit X-ray flares, likely resulting from magnetic reconnection that heats the stellar plasma to very high temperatures. These flares are difficult to identify through targeted observations. Here, we report the serendipitous detection of the brightest X-ray flaring state of the WTTS KM Ori in the eROSITA DR1 survey. Observations from SRG/eROSITA, Chandra X-ray Observatory, and XMM-Newton are analysed to assess the X-ray properties of KM Ori, thereby establishing its flaring state at the eROSITA epoch. The long-term (1999–2020) X-ray light curve generated for the Chandra observations confirmed that eROSITA captured the source at its highest X-ray flaring state recorded to date. Multi-instrument observations support the X-ray flaring state of the source, with time-averaged X-ray luminosity ($L_\mathrm{0.2-5\ keV}$) reaching $\sim 1.9\times10^{32}\mathrm{{erg\ s^{-1}}}$ at the eROSITA epoch, marking it the brightest and possibly the longest flare observed so far. Such intense X-ray flares have been detected only in a few WTTS. The X-ray spectral analysis unveils the presence of multiple thermal plasma components at all epochs. The notably high luminosity ($L_\mathrm{0.5-8\ keV}\sim10^{32}\ \mathrm{erg\ s}^{-1}$), energy ($E_\mathrm{ 0.5-8\ keV}\sim10^{37}$ erg), and the elevated emission measures of the thermal components in the eROSITA epoch indicate a superflare/megaflare state of KM Ori. Additionally, the H$\alpha$ line equivalent width of $\sim$$-5$ Å from our optical spectral analysis, combined with the lack of infrared excess in the spectral energy distribution, were used to re-confirm the WTTS (thin disc/disc-less) classification of the source. The long-duration flare of KM Ori observed by eROSITA indicates the possibility of a slow-rise top-flat flare. The detection demonstrates the potential of eROSITA to uncover such rare, transient events, thereby providing new insights into the X-ray activity of WTTS.

Observations of Galactic supernova remnants (SNRs) are crucial to understanding supernova explosion mechanisms and their impact on our Galaxy’s evolution. SNRs are usually identified by searching for extended, circular structures in all-sky surveys. However, the resolution and sensitivity of any given survey results in selection biases related to the brightness and angular scale of a subset of the total SNR population. As a result, we have only identified 1/3 of the expected number of SNRs in our Galaxy. We used data collected by the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) to perform a visual search for SNR candidates over $ 285^{\circ} \lt l \lt 70^{\circ}$ and $|b| \lt 16^{\circ}$. We then used the Widefield Infrared Survey Explorer to eliminate likely Hii regions from our SNR candidate sample. By exploiting the resolution and sensitivity of MWA data, we have successfully detected 10 new candidates using our proposed method. In addition, our method has also enabled us to detect and verify 10 previously known but unconfirmed candidates. The 20 SNR candidates described in the paper will increase the known SNR population in the Galaxy by 7%.

We demonstrate a low-cost radio telescope using a 2.4-m satellite dish, an inexpensive printer circuit board (PCB)-based dual-pole antenna and commodity-off-the-shelf components. Open-source, radio acquisition and professional pulsar processing tools are used to successfully monitor on a daily basis the Southern Hemisphere pulsar J0835−4510 (the Vela pulsar) at 820 MHz as it transits the meridian. The system successfully detected a ‘glitch’ in the Vela pulsar in real-time at Woodchester Observatory in South Australia. Woodchester represents a good balance of bandwidth, observation time, and cost to achieve scientifically interesting results on pulsar timing for amateur radio astronomy and/or STEM outreach projects.

There is growing evidence that the broadband radio spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of star-forming galaxies (SFGs) contain a wealth of complex physics. In this paper we aim to determine the physical emission and loss processes causing radio SED curvature and steepening to see what observed global astrophysical properties, if any, are correlated with radio SED complexity. To do this, we have acquired radio continuum data between 70 MHz and 17 GHz for a sample of 19 southern local ($z \lt 0.04$) SFGs. Of this sample 11 are selected to contain low-frequency ($ \lt $300 MHz) turnovers (LFTOs) in their SEDs and eight are control galaxies with similar global properties. We model the radio SEDs for our sample using a Bayesian framework whereby radio emission (synchrotron and free-free) and absorption or loss processes are included modularly. We find that without the inclusion of higher frequency data ($ \gt $17 GHz) single synchrotron power-law based models are always preferred for our sample; however, additional processes including free-free absorption (FFA) and synchrotron losses are often required to accurately model radio SED complexity in SFGs. The fitted synchrotron spectral indices range from $-0.45$ to $-1.07$ and are strongly anticorrelated with stellar mass suggesting that synchrotron losses are the dominant mechanism acting to steepen the spectral index in larger/more massive nearby SFGs. We find that LFTOs in the radio SED are independent from the inclination of SFGs; however, higher inclination galaxies tend to have steeper fitted spectral indices indicating losses to diffusion of cosmic ray electrons into the galactic halo. Four of five of the merging systems in our SFG sample have elevated specific star formation rates and flatter fitted spectral indices with unconstrained LFTOs. Lastly, we find no significant separation in global properties between SFGs with or without modelled LFTOs. Overall these results suggest that LFTOs are likely caused by a combination of FFA and ionisation losses in individual recent starburst regions with specific orientations and interstellar medium properties that, when averaged over the entire galaxy, do not correlate with global astrophysical properties.