Mass blooms of purple sulphur bacteria belonging to the genera Thiocapsa and Chromatium (> 108 viable cells/g dry wt sediment) develop in localised areas at the sand/air interface on a number of sheltered beaches in Scapa Flow each summer. These anaerobic bacteria grow phototrophically using H2S as e− donor and develop in association with other groups of phototrophic and heterotrophic bacteria. Oxygen consumption by the heterotrophs is greater than O2 production by the algae and diffusion from the surface and this rapidly leads to anaerobic conditions in the sub-surface sediments (0–10 mm depth). Under these conditions, significant populations of sulphate reducing bacteria develop (circa 105 viable cells/g dry wt sediment) and reduce SO2−/4 to S2− during the anaerobic oxidation of low molecular weight organic substrates. Sulphide generated in this process is used as the e− donor in photosynthesis by the purple sulphur bacteria and in turn is re-oxidised to SO2−/4. Sulphate reduction is dependent upon the availability of oxidisable low molecular organic substrates which are produced, as metabolic end-products, during the microbial decomposition of algal detritus. Blooms of Thiocapsa and Chromatium spp. were most pronounced on beaches such as Scapa, Waulkmill and Swanbister, which in localised areas, have high total organic carbon contents (5–12% w/w). The factors regulating the development of these localised mass developments of anaerobic phototrophic bacteria in apparently aerobic environments are discussed.

Relatively little research has been done on mycorrhizas of Sitka spruce, although greenhouse studies have confirmed that its growth can be improved by the introduction of mycorrhizal fungi. Work in nurseries is difficult under British conditions and it probably will be necessary to disinfest soil in seedbeds before mycorrhizal treatment can be applied. Results from forest trials show that inoculation with selected mycorrhizal fungi can give significant early growth effects, though how long these will persist is unknown. In such work, careful attention must be given to selection of controls. Features covered in this review include a discussion of fungi mycorrhizal with Sitka spruce, identification of mycorrhizas, nutrient uptake, and growth enhancement of seedlings and transplants.

Genetic transformation in the rabbit has been attempted by the artificial insemination of semen incubated with deoxyribonucleic acid. No evidence was obtained of any transformation at the albino or rex loci, nor of sex. The experiments comprised twenty inseminated does, and 133 offspring of several categories.

The mechanism by which irradiation produces gross re-arrangements of chromosomes (inversions, translocations, deletions) is now generally believed to occur in two steps: (a) breakage of one or more chromosomes, yielding two or more points of breakage; and (b) reunion of broken ends in a novel combination. Thus the frequency with which a given treatment produces re-arrangements depends not only on the number of breaks produced, but on the circumstances under which reunion takes place. In Drosophila the fertilized ovum seems to offer particularly favourable conditions for breaks produced in the mature spermatozoon to join up into new combinations. In immature germ-cells, on the other hand, re-arrangements are much less readily produced by irradiation (Muller, 1930; Shapiro and Neuhaus, 1933; Shapiro, 1937; Glass, 1939). Evidence for the occurrence of spontaneous or induced re-arrangements in somatic cells of Drosophila is very scanty.

The ciliary feeding mechanism of Amphioxus (Branchiostoma bermudœ) is dependent for its continued effectiveness on the cleaning action of a powerful current of water produced by movements of the floor of the atrium. As ciliary feeding progresses, the buccal cirri become heavily choked with particles of detritus, and the feeding current entering the pharynx is thereby reduced. When this occurs, the atrial floor is violently raised and lowered, and water is pumped in and out of the atrium by way of the pharynx and oral hood, dislodging the accumulated particles from the buccal cirri. As is to be expected, the atriopore is capable of being closed during this process.

A cytological study of the testes of the cat was undertaken in order to disclose the structural differentiation of the sex chromosomes. It was hoped that an analysis of these particular chromosomes in the male sex during meiotic division might reveal structural peculiarities which would throw some light upon the highly complex genetical behaviour of tortoise-shell cats.

The subject is a very wide one and for the purposes of a single contribution some selection is essential. Much might be, indeed has been, said concerning the adaptations relating to sexual and reproductive behaviour in the Primates, notably in a long series of contributions by Zuckerman and his co-workers (especially in his summaries of 1932 and 1933). Attention might also be made to the structural adaptations associated with toilet habits. But I have restricted my remarks to three aspects alone, paying particular attention to behavioural patterns in which I have been personally interested, or structural details which I have myself made the subject of contributions to the literature.

I shall confine myself to I. Adaptations associated with the Arboreal Habit; II. Adaptations connected with Dietetic Habits; III. Adaptations correlated with Social Organization.

The importance of aeolian deposition is clearly shown by the size and bulk of coastal dunes. Sand dunes occur where there is a large supply of sand, a wind to move it, and a place in which it can accumulate. A dune classification is presented which takes into account the origin, internal geometry and surface geomorphology of coastal dunes. Since the main element that distinguishes coastal dunes from desert dunes is vegetation, the relative amount of vegetation may be used as a typology. Four dune types are distinguished: vegetated dunes, parabolic dunes, medanos (i.e. large sand hills devoid of vegetation), and artificially-inseminated dunes. Vegetated and medano dunes are the end members, with parabolic dunes in between. Parabolic dunes are “anchored” by vegetation, but the centre of the dunes has migrated in the down-wind direction. The artificially-inseminated dunes are formed by vegetation plantings, fencing, or other artificial means, but with natural sand accumulation around these obstacles. These now account for a very substantial portion of the world's coastal dunes.

The role of wind and its relation to the internal geometry (i.e. cross-bed dip and direction) are discussed in some detail, with examples from Brazil, U.S. east and south coasts, Israel and China. Differences in these characteristics are detailed, and related to the different modes of formation of the four dune types.

The role of the wind in transporting and depositing sand in coastal areas is being quantified through both wind tunnel and field transport measurements. An example from a field study along the coast of Israel illustrates the differences between desert and coastal dune transport, where the role of vegetation and beach topography must be taken into account. From the Israeli study, and others, it appears that transport in coastal dunes is reduced by one-third to one-half of that in deserts, due to these factors.

Coastal dunes provide a useful, and often necessary, buffer against storm waves and the presently rising sea level. They form primarily through vertical sand accretion trapped by the sensitive dune vegetation. Provided that sufficient space exists between the high tide line and developed areas, planned dunes can be easily formed with the aid of plantings and fencing.

An account is given of the species Psilophyton robustius and the relevant literature is reviewed. There follows an illustrated description of a relatively well-preserved fertile, branched specimen. The morphological features of this specimen are discussed with reference to the earlier descriptions by Dawson and others. It has been found necessary to institute a new genus as Psilophyton is now apparently inappropriate for this species. The name given to this new genus is Trimerophyton, which includes the one species Trimerophyton robustius (Dawson) Hopping.

In the late eighteenth century the Scottish Highlands were attractive to travellers eager to test themselves against climatic, dietetic and other deprivations. From the early nineteenth century, the Scots themselves became more adventurous and Scottish medical men, notably Mungo Park and David Livingstone, played a prominent part in the exploration of Africa. In the 1860s Livingstone's prolonged travels through the Dark Continent and his belief that he had conquered malarial fever led to the dispatch of the first Christian Mission to the Zambesi region, a venture which failed largely as a result of the missionaries' ignorance of hygiene and medicine.

The establishment of the European presence in British Central Africa (now Malawi) was accomplished by representatives of the Scottish Presbyterian Churches in the 1870s. This paper examines some of the problems encountered during the ensuing half century. Specific themes include the impact of developments in transport systems; housing and sanitation; hints on suitable clothing; the presence of trained medical personnel in both Mission and Government and their role in the study of tropical disease; use and abuse of alcohol.

Bracken grows on sites very suitable for forest tree growth allowing a wide choice of tree species. However, the trend in afforestation is towards poorer soils and the area of bracken land being planted is declining. Bracken will damage young trees and methods of its control are reviewed. Hand weeding still has a part to play, but most weeding of heavy bracken growth is by herbicides. Experiments using dicamba, chlorthiamid, picloram and more recently asulam and glyphosate demonstrate a gradual improvement in the selectivity and cost effectiveness of herbicides. Dicamba can only be used before planting and its use is limited to sites where control over three years is assured. Picloram and chlorthiamid at the rates necessary to control bracken are damaging to conifers. Asulam is selective and can be applied after planting giving good control of the bracken. Glyphosate is more damaging to trees than asulam but its use may be justified where a wider spectrum of weed control is required.

The Moray Firth forms part of the north British coastal area of the North Sea and is distinguished by its depth, hydrography and plankton from the offshore northern North Sea. The 35·0 or 35·1 × 103 isohaline can be taken as the boundary between the two areas.

Geographical and seasonal variations in temperature and salinity are described in terms of a belt of low salinity coastal water in the inner firth and along its southern shore and of “mixed” water to the north and east. During the winter the “mixed” water is warmer than the coastal water, during the summer it is colder. Tidal streams are dominantly semi-diurnal, relatively weak in the inner firth and relatively strong in the outer firth. Residual currents are largely wind driven, and some are caused by tidal effects.

Geographical variation in the seasonal changes in the phytoplankton standing stock is related to water column stratification. The early spring standing stocks are highest in the inner firth and off the southern shore. During the summer and early autumn, phytoplankton is most abundant below the pycnocline. Average zooplankton standing stocks increase from 0·2–0·6 g dry weight (100m3) 1 in winter to 1.0 g (100m3) 1 exceptionally 4·5 g (100m3) 1. in summer. Standing stocks in November–December range from 0·3 to 1·8 g (100m3) 1.

We have studied morphological and biochemical aspects of storage reserves and their degradation in fern spores during the germination process. The results presented here are concerned with the fate of lipid, protein and phytic acid. Depletion of lipid reserves and breakdown of lipid bodies was directly correlated with increased activity of glyoxylate cycle enzymes during early stages of germination. Degradation of protein reserves coincided with the depletion of salt soluble proteins (globulins) from the spores and was related to the time when high activity of aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase was observed. Lipid and protein appeared to play an important role in germination. Phytic acid reserves were present in the spore and were hydrolysed by phytase after germination occurred. This storage material was implicated in growth of the prothallus.

Only euryhaline fishes were able to recolonize Outer Hebridean fresh waters after the last glaciation so that inland waters now contain only six indigenous, truly freshwater species; salmon, trout, charr, three- and ten-spined stickleback and the freshwater eel. Parts of some lochs are invaded by the sea at stages in the tidal cycle and some 20 species of marine fish may be found at times in inland waters.

Both salmon and sea trout occur in all the larger freshwater systems and sea trout are also found in many of the minor ones.

The original sea trout gave rise to sedentary brown trout populations similar to those of the mainland.

Fluctuations in the Hebridean salmon catch suggest that the stock is affected by the same factors as those affecting Scottish west coast stocks generally: the vast-majority return to fresh water as grilse, while sea trout stocks have been declining over the last 25 years.

Brown trout and eels are almost ubiquitous. Charr occur in Lewis and parts of North Uist but have not been reported from Harris or South Uist and are now only present as sedentary forms. The three-spined stickleback is more widely distributed than the ten-spined.

Outer Hebridean lochs in general have special scientific value because, unlike many Scottish mainland lochs, they have not been affected by the introduction of alien species and some are still in an unexploited state.

Changes in the status of fish populations in the Clyde Estuary between Woodhall and Glasgow since 1978 are described and data presented on species composition and distribution, temporal and spatial fluctuations in abundance and biomass and length frequency data for certain species are analysed.

The seaward part of the estuary is colonised by marine and euryhaline marine species dominated by flounder, while the ‘city reaches’ have a fresh water component dominated by three-spined stickleback and eel in addition to several euryhaline species, e.g. sand-goby and saithe.

The extent of biological recovery of the estuary from severe organic pollution can be gauged from the presence now of thirty-four species, including nineteen in the city reaches which were virtually fishless in the mid nineteenth century. The upper estuary is now able to support resident and migratory fish for much of the year, but species composition and abundance are markedly affected by seasonally variable fresh water flows to the estuary affecting primarily dissolved oxygen and salinity, leading to mortalities among resident species and providing a barrier to migrants.

The programme for ornithological monitoring in Shetland has concentrated on selected species of cliffnesting seabirds and inshore waterfowl. Sample study sites throughout Shetland have been selected and standard counting methods derived. These have taken account of factors such as logistics and accessibility, the effects of weather and observer error and of the seasonal and diurnal variations in the numbers of birds.

Changes in seabird and waterfowl numbers between 1975–79 have been observed. These, with the exception of the bird mortality following the Esso Bernicia oil spill, have been attributed to natural variation. From the scale and local differences between these as yet short-term observations, estimates are presented of the minimum percentage change required in either numbers of birds or their nests before such natural variation is exceeded.

The problems of interpreting changes in numbers are discussed.

The number of dead birds picked up in Sullom Voe after the Esso Bernicia spill corresponded closely to that estimated from the monitoring counts before and after the incident.

Ecological conditions for intergametophytic mating and interspecific hybridisation in the clubmosses are discussed. Several features, including the number of recorded hybrids, records of gametophyte population densities, and conditions for movement of the male gamete in the soil, indicate that intergametophytic mating in Lycopodium is not especially impeded by the subterranean habitat, as has been commonly assumed. The evidence from one site indicates highly effective spore dispersal, and a greater ecological tolerance than expected for the species involved. Two cases are discussed in which hybrids have been formed between ecologically and/or taxonomically very different parent species, in the absence of one parent sporophyte, or with one of the parent species sporophyte poorly adapted to the hybrid habitat. The protected, relatively uniform, subterranean gametophyte habitat is thought to account for successful gametophyte growth and hybridisation between species of widely different sporophyte ecology.

The German professor of physiology, August Pütter, is remembered especially for his theories on the nutrition of marine animals. His major papers, ‘The nutrition of aquatic animals’ and ‘Organic matter in the sea’, appeared in 1907, followed by numerous other papers until 1925. He died about 1935. Ranson (1935,1936), Assistant at the Paris Museum of Natural History, gives the essence of the works of Pütter as follows (translated from the French):

1. Aquatic animals are not able to capture by the means which they possess enough organisms or planktonic materials to cover their nutritional requirements.

2. There is a very large amount of dissolved organic matter in sea water which, alone, is broadly sufficient to sustain the needs of the animals.

3. This soluble organic matter has as its source the activity of algae and bacteria.

4. The fundamental part of the nutritional requirements of aquatic animals is derived from dissolved organic matter; plankton plays only a secondary role.

5. Aquatic animals absorb this organic matter not only by their digestive apparatus which is often rudimentary, but by the whole exterior surface of their bodies and especially by simple epithelial tissues such as the gills.

From direct sampling, the deeper Rockall Trough and Faeroe-Shetland Channel are known to have a Tertiary-Quaternary sedimentary sequence up to 3000 m thick, which is in places, particularly in the north, underlain by early Tertiary basaltic volcanic rocks. The seamounts in the Rockall Trough are of basic volcanics of probable Upper Cretaceous age. The eastern shelf areas have a rifted basement of Precambrian-Devonian (-?Carboniferous) age, overlain by Permian + Mesozoic sedimentary rocks that reach 5000 m in thickness in rift basins. Tertiary sediments thicken rapidly from the shelf into deep water. The western shelf areas have extensive early Tertiary basalts from the Faeroe Islands to the southern part of Rockall Bank. A thin Tertiary—Quaternary cover exists and Precambrian basement lies beneath.

The pre-Tertiary geology of the deep water areas and the overall crustal structure have been inferred from geophysical investigations. In the Rockall Trough the crust is of oceanic thickness, about 6 km, but it is probably slightly thicker beneath the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. This fact, coupled with the size of the channel compared with other small ocean basins and the knowledge that fully developed oceanic crust exists just outside the mouth of the Rockall Trough, strongly suggests that at least parts of the deep water areas are floored by oceanic crust. However, seismic reflection and magnetic anomaly profiles do not yield observations characteristic of normal oceanic crust.

The age of any oceanic crust in the Rockall Trough and Faeroe-Shetland Channel is equivocal. Between 54° and 59° N a succession of largely sedimentary rocks up to 3000 m in thickness occurs between the Tertiary and the acoustic basement. To the north this succession is masked on seismic profiles by early Tertiary basalts but it is probably present; to the south it is interrupted by a series of acoustically opaque basement ridges. With slow sedimentation rates, this succession could extend back to the late Palaeozoic, but with rapid rates, only to the mid-Upper Cretaceous. An age of mid-Lower to mid-Upper Cretaceous for oceanic crust, equal to that of the ocean crust outside the mouth of the Rockall Trough, is accepted here. Although rapid subsidence and infill in Upper Cretaceous time is not characteristic of major shelf basins around Britain, it may be acceptable for the Rockall Trough and Faeroe-Shetland Channel if they are underlain by oceanic crust rather than continental crust.

A likely model for the formation of the Rockall Trough and Faeroe-Shetland Channel is of continental rifting and subsidence from late Palaeozoic or earliest Mesozoic to mid-Cretaceous time, then sea-floor spreading in Albian (c.105My)–Santonian (c.85 My) time, accompanied and immediately followed by rapid subsidence and deposition. The Tertiary was heralded by widespread basaltic igneous activity which briefly arrested subsidence, but was largely a period of subsidence without sedimentation keeping pace.

Fouling communities typical of shallow water inshore sites were found at three locations in the Moray Firth. At each, an initial background cover of solitary tubeworms and barnacles was overgrown by secondary fouling organisms. On the piles of Nigg jetty, overgrowth consisted of mussels in the depth range 0–6 m and hydroids, sponges, soft corals and anemones from 6–26 m. Buoys in the approaches to Cromarty Firth were completely covered by a mixture of algae and mussels. Sunlit areas of the float cleaned annually bore a diverse algal cover, whereas uncleaned shaded areas and the freely hanging chain had three-year-old mussels up to 7 cm long. Mussel fouling extended down the chain to within 1 m of the seabed at 26 m depth. Concrete anchor blocks on the seabed were covered with solitary tubeworms and hydroids. Steel piled platforms in the Beatrice Field were completely fouled after four years. Mussels and seaweeds were abundant from 0–5 m. In the depth range 8–35 m the background calcareous layer was overgrown by soft corals up to 10 cm long and hydroids. From 35 m to the seabed at 46 m, soft overgrowth was provided mainly by hydroids and ascidians, with only a few small corals.