Subterranean herpetofauna comprise an estimated 20% of the world's amphibians and reptiles but are one of the least studied groups of terrestrial vertebrates. Monitoring population trends and threats to these species is dependent in part on quantitative historical data, which are generally lacking. One exception is a 1970 study conducted in Ndumu Game Reserve, South Africa. We revisited this area in 2004 and carried out comparative quantitative sampling in deciduous broad-leaf woodland and sand forest habitats. Our results show a 79% reduction in density of subterranean herpetofauna, as well as a reduction in diversity. Mann-Whitney tests show that the amphisbaenian Zygaspis vandami has undergone a significant reduction in density in both habitats sampled. We relate reductions in subterranean herpetofaunal densities to an increased density of the Reserve's ungulate grazers, suggesting a link between reduction in leaf-litter and soil macrofauna prey of the fossorial reptiles. This study highlights the need for quantitative surveys of subterranean herpetofauna to support future conservation efforts.

The wild buffaloes, gaur Bos gaurus and banteng Bos javanicus, are among the most threatened mammals in Vietnam but little information is available on their status and distribution. Over 2004–2007 I undertook surveys in three Vietnamese distribution strongholds of the Vulnerable gaur and Endangered banteng: Ea So Nature Reserve and Yok Don and Cat Tien National Parks. A total of 22 herds with 121 gaur and seven herds with 49 banteng were observed. Herd sizes of both species were generally lower than those recorded in Thailand and Malaysia. Most of the herds were observed in remote areas, showing that the species are probably staying away from areas with human activity. No banteng were found in Cat Tien National Park. Of the other wild buffalo species the Critically Endangered kouprey Bos sauveli and Endangered water buffalo Bubalus arnee were not observed in the three protected areas but the Near Threatened serow Capricornis milneedwardsii was occasionally observed in all three areas. Illegal hunting, habitat degradation and disturbance appear to be the most significant threats to gaur and banteng in the areas surveyed. It is essential to have effective law enforcement to eliminate human impacts on these two species, and an adequate conservation strategy to secure their long-term survival.

Of the 13 species of fruit bats occurring in India, the Indian flying fox Pteropus giganteus, the dog-faced fruit bat Rousettus leschenaultii and the greater short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx are distributed throughout the country. They usually live in trees (P. giganteus), temples and caves (R. leschenaultii) and foliage (C. sphinx) and feed on fruits such as fig Ficus spp., Singapore cherry Muntingia calabura, Indian almond Terminalia catappa, mango Mangifera indica, guava Psidium guajava as well as leaves, nectar and pollen. The other 10 species live at sea level and at altitudes of > 2,000 m and their distribution and foraging activities may be restricted mainly to forests. Two of them, the Nicobar flying fox Pteropus faunulus and Salim Ali's fruit bat Latidens salimalii are endemic. Although details of their foraging activity are poorly known, there is no evidence that they visit commercial fruit orchards. They feed on wild fruits and disperse seeds widely, contributing to forest regeneration. Although P. giganteus, R. leschenaultii and C. sphinx feed on commercial fruits, their role in pollination and seed dispersal of economically important plants such as kapok Ceiba pentandra, mahua Bassia latifolia and petai Parkia spp. is important. Sacrificial crops such as M. calabura can be used at orchards to reduce the damage bats cause to commercial fruit. Because the ecological services provided by bats are not appreciated by the public and conservation planners, all fruit bat species with one exception are still categorized as vermin and included as such in Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and amended Acts. It is now appropriate for the Government of India to revisit this issue and consider removing these pollinators and seed dispersers from the list of vermin in the Wildlife (Protection) Act.

To investigate the implications of forest fragmentation for conservation of leaf-litter lizards the importance of fragment size, corridors and forest structure was examined in 20 forest fragments and six localities within a continuous forest in the Atlantic Plateau of São Paulo state, Brazil. The fragments were 2–276 ha in area and had different degrees of connectivity depending on the presence or absence of corridors. Two species of lizards were dominant, Ecpleopus gaudichaudii and Enyalius perditus. Variation in forest structure among sites was important only in explaining the abundance of E. perditus. Regardless of variation in forest structure, lizard species composition, total lizard abundance, number of species and abundance of E. perditus were sensitive to fragmentation per se but not to fragment size or corridor linkage. The inhospitable matrix surrounding fragments is probably what determines the presence and abundance of E. perditus and the higher lizard richness in continuous forests. These conditions may have prevented lizard species from recolonizing the forest fragments. Our results emphasize that the conservation of this leaf-litter fauna depends on the maintenance of large tracts of continuous forests and not on the size of fragments or on the presence of forest connections. Strategies for conservation of leaf-litter lizards in such highly fragmented Atlantic Forest landscapes should consider the enlargement of landscape connectivity between fragments and continuous forest, allowing the latter areas to act as a source of individuals for fragments.

The population and conservation status of crocodiles throughout West and Central Africa is poorly known and the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group's highest priority recommendations are country status surveys and examination of potential threats. This study presents survey data and a review of the conservation status of the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus, slender-snouted crocodile Mecistops cataphractus and African dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis at 67 sites throughout Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. No crocodiles were sighted in 31.5% of surveys but, where encountered, densities averaged 0.90 crocodiles sighted km-1. The most frequently encountered crocodile was C. niloticus (94% of sightings) with population structure highly biased to individuals < 1 year of age (41.4%). Only 14 M. cataphractus were observed. Local informants report that crocodiles were more common 10–20 years ago than at present. There is now little commercial harvest, which includes limited use in the bushmeat and traditional medicine markets, because of the crocodile's scarcity. Habitat encroachment and incidental bycatch in fishing devices appear to be the major threats. Actions needed to improve the conservation status of crocodile populations in both countries, and throughout the region, are discussed.

Cabot's tragopan Tragopan caboti is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, listed on Appendix I of CITES and is endemic to China. Habitat loss and fragmentation are believed to be the main causes of decreases in abundance of the species. Wuyishan National Natural Reserve supports a relatively stable population of the tragopan but is bisected by a clay road through the core area. This study used direct observation and radio telemetry to investigate the impact of the road on the species. We found that weather was the most important factor affecting the number of individuals actually seen on the road, and the volume of traffic was the main factor affecting the behaviour of individuals, especially at dusk. The road does not appear to be a barrier for Cabot's tragopan but appropriate management is required to ensure the continued survival of the species at this site.

The Near Threatened Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni is distributed across the Tibetan Plateau and its peripheral mountains. Within India it occurs in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and Sikkim, and the population was estimated to be c. 200 in the early 1990s. Hunting of the species was banned in Jammu and Kashmir in the 1980s but the effect of this hunting moratorium on the population has not previously been assessed. We conducted surveys in the proposed Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary and the neighbouring Tsokar Basin, areas reported to have a relatively high abundance of argali within Ladakh. We also opportunistically surveyed other areas and collected secondary information about the species’ occurrence in other parts of Ladakh. A total of 127 animals were counted during the surveys. Based on this number and other small populations reported earlier by us and others, we estimate a total population of 300–360 argali in Ladakh. Although past population estimates were approximate, the present estimate, which includes areas not previously surveyed, suggests there has been no substantial change in the population of argali in Ladakh since the early 1980s. Factors other than hunting therefore appear to be impeding argali population recovery in this region. Pashmina-producing goats are the most abundant livestock within the argali's range and, owing to the recent increase in demand for this fibre, the goat population is increasing and this may be hindering the recovery of the argali.

The Endangered frog Atelognathus patagonicus is endemic to the Laguna Blanca wetland system, Patagonia, Argentina. This species has undergone a significant contraction of its original distribution, including loss of the main population from the largest lagoon, Blanca. The decline of A. patagonicus was first perceived in 1986 and was thought to be at least partially associated with the anthropogenic introduction of the perch Percichthys colhuapiensis for sport. To evaluate the potential impact of P. colhuapiensis on A. patagonicus we surveyed for both species in 28 lagoons, and found A. patagonicus present in 23. These lagoons represent, however, only a small percentage of the total wetland area. The presence of A. patagonicus was associated with lagoons characterized by absence of P. colhuapiensis and high abundance of macrophytes. The most severe problem facing the remaining populations is in the many lagoons currently not protected by Laguna Blanca National Park. Conservation efforts need to focus on the prevention of fish introductions in the wetlands areas on private land. A project to restore A. patagonicus to Laguna Blanca, and educational programmes emphasizing the protection of Patagonian wetlands as reservoirs of regional biodiversity, are currently under development.

From January 2005 to December 2007 field surveys were conducted in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam to assess the status of banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus. The population of banteng was estimated to be 74–103. It has declined by at least 50% since the mid- 1990s and the species is likely to go extinct in Vietnam in the near future. Remaining herds are small, although recruitment still exists. Large portions of the species' range in the early 1990s are no longer occupied and the maximum area of occupancy of the species in Vietnam is c. 2,670 km2. Only five disconnected populations persist. The most important are in Yok Don National Park (30–44 individuals) and Ea So Nature Reserve (23–31). However, our surveys suggest that these populations are exposed to risks of disease outbreak and will only be viable if there is active management to facilitate recovery. Interviews carried out at the survey sites indicate that the status of banteng in Vietnam is determined by commercial poaching in response to demand for trophies. Future conservation actions need to target poor governance, the root cause of banteng decline, which precludes effective management of protected areas in Vietnam and places several species of large mammals at risk of extinction nationally.

The Endangered lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus is endemic to rainforest patches of the Western Ghats mountains in south-western India. Most populations of this primate are severely fragmented and declining and the species is locally extinct in some areas. This study evaluates the status of this macaque in the Talakaveri, Pushpagiri and Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuaries and adjacent areas in the state of Karnataka. We sighted four, two and three groups, consisting of five, nine and 14 individuals, in these three sanctuaries, respectively. The recently discovered population in the Sirsi-Honnavara area of Karnataka state is possibly the only viable population, with > 750 individuals, but is confined to unprotected reserve forests with extensive human habitation, agricultural land and livestock reserves. We make recommendations for the long-term conservation of the species, and for the Sirsi-Honnavara population in particular.

Attenborough's long-beaked echidna Zaglossus attenboroughi is known from a single specimen collected in the Cyclops Mountains of northern Papua in 1961, and has previously been considered to be extremely rare if not already extinct. New fieldwork to investigate the continued survival of Z. attenboroughi was conducted on the north and south slopes of the Cyclops Mountains in May 2007 using community interviews, sign surveys and visual encounter surveys. Many villagers recognized photographs of long-beaked echidnas, were able to describe key biological characteristics of echidnas, and reported several recent sightings below 300 m elevation, referring to the animal as payangko. Although no echidnas were observed during fieldwork, diagnostic echidna feeding signs (imprints of nose pokes) were detected from < 300 m to 1,250 m and possibly up to 1,700 m elevation. These extensive reports and observations confirm that long-beaked echidnas are still present in the Cyclops Mountains, and descriptions provided by local informants strongly suggest that the reports refer to Z. attenboroughi. However, the species remains threatened by human impacts, primarily subsistence hunting and habitat loss. Efforts are now being made to learn more about the relationship of Attenborough's long-beaked echidna to all other Zaglossus species, and a project is being initiated with local communities to monitor sightings and increase awareness of this rare and evolutionarily distinct mammal.

Laos harbours globally significant populations of small carnivores, including mustelids and viverrids of conservation concern and felids that are relatively rare or unknown from other parts of Asia. However, few have received conservation attention as managers still lack basic information on the status and distribution of even the most common species. We conducted the country’s first systematic camera-trap monitoring of carnivores in the Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area on the Laos–Vietnam border, with intensive sampling across 500 km2 from 543 to 2,288 m altitude for 8,499 camera-trap days during 2003–2006. Surveys detected 14 species of small carnivores, including the first record of Owston’s civet Chrotogale owstoni for Laos. Preliminary occupancy estimates for the seven most common species ranged from 11% for marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata to 42% for Asian golden cat Pardofelis temminckii. Activity patterns of viverrids were primarily nocturnal whereas mustelids, except for hog badger Arctonyx collaris, were diurnal. Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis was largely nocturnal, marbled cat primarily diurnal and Asian golden cat as likely detected during the day as at night. Our results led to the establishment of a contiguous 3,000-km2 protected area core zone and regulations that protect threatened species and control harvest of managed species.

In September 2007 unusual precipitation patterns created conditions in the eastern steppe of Mongolia (drought conditions in many places and wet conditions in one area) that led to the observation of a historically large Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa herd (> 200,000). A model developed to predict gazelle occurrence based on satellite imagery of vegetation productivity correctly identified the region where the mega-herd was located. Additionally, few gazelles were observed in large portions of adjacent, suitable habitat that either had intense insect activity or were undergoing intensive oil development. Because Mongolian gazelles appear to undertake long-distance nomadic movements to cope with a highly variable environment and food availability, development activities that discourage use of limited suitable habitat may ultimately reduce gazelle fecundity or increase mortality. Landscape level conservation strategies that prevent habitat loss and allow access to all of the grasslands seem preferable to strategies that focus on enhancing a handful of protected areas.

Censuses of population fragments of the Endangered, endemic Hermann's tortoise Testudo hermanni hermanni were carried out during 2001–2005 in mainland France to reassess their status and provide guidelines for conservation management. Comparisons with previous censuses suggest a decline in abundance since 1992, although the total area of distribution remains unchanged. If conservation and management decisions only consider sites where there is a high encounter rate of tortoises, 19 sites would be protected. If indicators of effective reproduction (presence of both sexes, juveniles and subadults) are taken into account, 31 sites would deserve attention, of which only 10 have high encounter rates. Discarding sites with low encounter rates omits c. 70% of sites where the species appears to be reproducing. I provide a new map that includes demographic parameters, and thus describe 16 reproductive fragments plus four where reproduction is suspected. In the long-term the major conservation goal should be to protect these fragments and facilitate their reconnection. The global population of Hermann's tortoise could thus be largely contained in eight large fragments, enhancing the persistence of this species in mainland France.

The 1,080 km2 Batang Gadis National Park in the North Sumatra province of Indonesia was established in December 2004 by the regional government of Mandailing Natal district. The Park has the potential to make an important contribution to tiger conservation but lacks scientific data on the occurrence of the species. This study aimed to assess the tiger population of the Park, using camera trapping conducted between December 2005 and July 2006. We recorded a mean tiger density of 1.8 tigers per 100 km2 (95% CI 1.8–6.4) and, based on this, estimated the tiger population in and adjacent to the Park to be 29–103 adults. We found that tiger presence was negatively correlated with altitude and positively correlated with distance from forest edge to the interior, and < 18% of the total suitable habitat occupied by tigers was of high quality. This study indicates that Batang Gadis National Park potentially serves as a natural corridor betwen the Angkola and Barumun-Rokan ecosystems, areas totalling c. 6,500 km2, and that this landscape could serve as a stronghold for tiger populations in northern Sumatra.