Within the last few years three key concerns have come to dominate the conservation-poverty debate: (1) the activities and accountability of big international conservation NGOs, and their impacts on local communities; (2) the increasingly protectionist focus of conservation policy and the implications for communities resident in and around protected areas, in particular regarding involuntary displacements and evictions; (3) the lack of attention to biodiversity conservation on the development agenda, with the current focus on poverty reduction. The roots of these different strands of the debate lie in much older discussions of the links between environment and development. There have been periods of convergence, especially around issues of sustainable development, participation and decentralization during the 1980s and 1990s. There have also been periods of divergence, in particular the disenchantment with community-based approaches to conservation and the prioritization of poverty over environment, during the 1990s and 2000s. Reactions to the outcomes of the 2003 World Parks Congress brought the three strands of the modern debate to a head. Ongoing discussions around these strands continue at a different pace but the debate appears to be moving fastest on biodiversity's place within the development agenda, although concerns over biodiversity remain marginal compared to the current focus on climate change. But it is within the climate change agenda, and particularly the escalation of discussions around reduced emissions from deforestation, that the next formulations of the conservation-poverty debate are likely to develop.

The endemic Mediterranean yelkouan shearwater Puffinus yelkouan, elevated to the rank of species in 2002, is poorly monitored and studied. Despite this lack of data and the susceptibility of closely related species to threats at breeding sites and foraging areas, the yelkouan shearwater is currently considered to be at low risk of extinction. This review, based on published documents, personal communications with scientists and our own observations, summarizes available data on range, population size and trends, and on threats to the species' existence. Breeding sites range from the Marseille islands (France) to Bulgarian islands in the Black Sea but many are not confirmed. The estimated global population is 11,355-54,524 pairs but most censuses are probably overestimates and the global population could be only a few thousand breeding pairs. There is evidence of a population decline and susceptibility to introduced mammals, particularly feral cats Felis catus and ship rats Rattus rattus, and to accidental bycatch in fishing gear. We highlight the lack of accurate and regular censuses of the species, and the alarming situation suggested by the little data available. We recommend that the yelkouan shearwater be categorized as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, encourage collaborative work to clarify its status, and make a plea for more data on the species’ demography and ecology, and for the evaluation of terrestrial and marine threats.

The relationship between conservation and poverty has received extensive attention recently, and the impacts of protected areas on the welfare of communities surrounding them has been debated. I seek to contribute to this debate by using a unique sub-national database of infant mortality rates for an analysis of such mortality surrounding protected areas in developing countries. The paper tests the hypotheses that poverty rates in regions surrounding protected areas in developing countries are higher than national averages and that poverty rates are highest around large and strictly protected areas. Preliminary evidence suggests that infant mortality rates surrounding protected areas, and even those surrounding the most strictly protected areas, are not very different from national rates. Infant mortality rates are significantly higher among populations surrounding larger protected areas but the causal relationship is uncertain. Data limitations and other problems related to this kind of global analysis are discussed. Information of the kind presented in this paper can assist management authorities to assess the relative poverty surrounding protected areas in their countries so as to set priorities for poverty alleviation interventions, and may serve as a useful sampling frame for local case studies and long-term monitoring.

We present the first assessments of the population, distribution and conservation status of the recently described kipunji Rungwecebus kipunji in forests in the Southern Highlands and Udzungwa Mountains of southern Tanzania. Surveys totalling 2,864 hours and covering 3,456 km of transects were undertaken to determine distribution and group numbers, following which 772 hours of simultaneous multi-group observations in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu forests, in the Southern Highlands and Udzungwa Mountains respectively, enabled 209 total counts to be carried out. We estimate there are c. 1,042 individuals in Rungwe-Kitulo, with 25–39 individuals per group (mean 30.65 ± SE 0.62, n = 34), and 75 individuals, with 15–25 per group (mean 18.75 ± SE 2.39, n = 4) in Ndundulu. We estimate a total kipunji population of 1,117 in 38 groups, with 15–39 per group (mean 29.39 ± SE 0.85, n = 38). The Ndundulu population may no longer be viable and the Rungwe-Kitulo population is highly fragmented, with isolated sub-populations in degraded habitat. We recorded areas of occupancy of 1,079 and 199 ha in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu, respectively, giving a total of 1,278 ha. We estimate the species’ extent of occurrence to be 1,769 ha, with 1,241 and 528 ha in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu, respectively. We believe the kipunji faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild and recommend the species and genus be categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

A survey of the Sebungwe elephant Loxodonta africana population in Zimbabwe in 2006 revealed a large rise in the number of dead elephants. The estimated number of carcasses increased >16-fold from 1989 to 2006 and the carcass ratio (number of all elephant carcasses as a percentage of the number of all elephants) rose from 1.25 to 15.4%. The ratio for fresh or recent carcasses, which reflected the mortality rate during the survey year, increased from 0.19 to 1.70% during 1995-2006. Records of elephants killed before 1995 were supplemented with estimates of the numbers killed after 1995, with these estimates increasing exponentially, as did the observed number of fresh or recent carcasses. A maximum likelihood analysis to compare population models revealed that the best fit to the survey estimates of this closed population was a model that started with 9,500 elephants in 1979 and that each year increased at 4.02% and decreased by the number killed, with the number killed annually increasing at 23.5% per year after 1995. A rise in anthropogenic mortality, mostly due to poaching, caused the increase in carcass numbers observed after 1999. Since 1997 the mortality rate of elephants in the National Parks and Safari Areas in the Sebungwe has been positively correlated with the observed number of poachers’ camps. Anthropogenic mortality is now great enough to keep the elephant population approximately constant at 14,000-16,000 animals. The population number was also constant (at a lower level) during the 1980s, when elephants were culled and the sale of meat, hides and ivory covered the costs of elephant management but there have been no recent culls, partly because the ivory trade ban prevents tusks from culled elephants being sold to offset the costs of management. This study illustrates the value of a long-term data set collected with consistent techniques, and including data on other species and the environment collected at no extra cost under the financial umbrella of a charismatic species.

Polar bears Ursus maritimus have a circumpolar distribution that is directly tied to the Arctic sea ice. Although they are wide-ranging, polar bears do not belong to a single population but rather are comprised of 19 largely discrete subpopulations, 13 of which are fully or partly under Canadian jurisdiction. These subpopulations are used to manage the sustainable harvest of polar bears in Canada but for conservation purposes the species is currently considered a single biological unit. Long-term climate warming has reduced the availability of sea ice that polar bears require for feeding, movement and reproduction, and continued declines in ice extent and duration are forecast to have significant negative effects on polar bears in some areas. Under the Canadian Species at Risk Act separate legal protection may be given to intraspecific groups (so called designatable units, DUs) that are genetically, geographically and/or biogeographically distinct. We examined the conservation status of polar bears across their Canadian range and compared large-scale ecosystem properties across subpopulations. We found that threats to the conservation of polar bears are not spatially uniform and we identified five DUs that captured broad patterns of polar bear biodiversity. We conclude that the use of DUs provides a biologically-sound framework for the conservation of polar bears.

Tree species have been the focus of increasing interest regarding the so-called conservation-through-use approach, which aims to achieve conservation by increasing the value of wild resources to local communities. Although tree species display many characteristics that increase their potential for sustainable use, the approach is rarely successful in practice. The reasons for this are examined with reference to case studies, considering five conditions needed for success: (1) sustainable harvesting, (2) no interaction between threats, (3) successful commercialization, (4) economic benefits received by producers, and (5) use of financial income to support conservation action. Case studies illustrate that even when the first four of these conditions are met, trade in forest products often provides insufficient financial returns to protect the forest against other threats. This highlights the importance of understanding the interactions between threats for conservation-through-use to be achieved, an issue illustrated by a conceptual model. Recommendations are presented indicating how the conservation of tree species through sustainable use may be achieved in practice. Critically, financial rewards of sustainable use need to be large enough to support practical conservation action, which is required to counter the many threats to which tree species are exposed.

The recently-described Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala is so far known only from western Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India. Here we present the first conservation status assessment for the species. Our surveys enumerated a total of 569 individuals in the Tawang and West Kameng districts of the State. The species seems to be tolerant of anthropogenic habitat change but is vulnerable to hunting. A low infant to adult female ratio suggests that not all adult females reproduce at any given time, and females do not give birth every year. The macaques are persecuted largely in response to crop damage, with the practice of keeping them as pets providing an added incentive to hunting. The species is, however, able to attain remarkably high densities in the absence of hunting. Crop damage by the macaque is widespread; patterns of crop damage are similar across altitudinal zones and do not seem to be correlated with macaque density. The species will need to be protected in human-modified landscapes, and the issues of crop damage and retaliatory persecution need to be addressed urgently.

The historical regulation of African elephant Loxodonta africana populations could provide guidelines for management efforts and decisions in areas where elephant numbers are now increasing. However, there are few detailed records of the natural mortality processes of the past. Therefore, we modelled elephant population growth to evaluate possible effects of age-specific mortality. Model projections indicated that an annual mortality of 17.1% of juveniles or 10.5% of adults would be sufficient to prevent population growth. For age classes below or just at sexual maturity (i.e. 0-3, 4-7, 8-11) 37.5% annual mortality of one of these classes was required to achieve 0% population growth. These mortality levels are much higher than those reported in southern Africa today. Simulations of episodic mortality events (e.g. droughts) indicated that such events would need to occur every 16 years at a severity that would cause the mortality of all infants and weaned calves (0-7 years old), as well as 10% of adults and subadults (8-60 years old) to prevent long-term population growth. An 8-year frequency required the mortality of 84.7% of infants and weaned calves. Historically, it is possible that high drought mortality and frequency, and high predation levels, may have reduced population growth significantly but current mortality rates and frequencies are insufficient to constrain long-term average population growth at 0%. The natural limitation of existent elephant populations through mortality is therefore unlikely, indicating a need for active management of the increasing elephant populations in southern Africa.

In 2004 the Ebola virus caused a drastic decline in western gorilla Gorilla gorilla abundance at Lokoué Bai, a clearing in Odzala National Park, Republic of Congo. This decline was detected by observations of gorillas visiting the clearing. We confirm that the sympatric chimpanzee Pan troglodytes population was also affected by the Ebola outbreak, and test whether the decline in the ape population would have been detected with line-transect surveys, the most commonly used wildlife monitoring methodology in Central Africa. We also evaluate the potential of transect surveys for describing the extent and pinpointing the timing of drastic population declines when this information is not known from other evidence. Both nest survey using the marked nest count method and standing stock survey of other signs of ape presence (dung, feeding remains, prints) were able to detect the decline. However, only nests and dung were reliable indices for estimating the magnitude of the decline and accurately pinpointing the timing. It was necessary to pool data across many survey replicates because of small samples sizes. Our results suggest that transects methods are able to detect drastic changes in ape abundance but that large sample sizes are necessary to achieve adequate statistical power. We therefore recommend that those intending to use transect methods as tools for monitoring large forest mammals evaluate in advance how much effort will be necessary to detect meaningful changes in animal abundance.

In this paper we provide an empirically-based way to address the general question of the broad-scale spatial relationship between poverty occurrence and areas of interest to those seeking conservation of large wild areas. We address the question of the spatial relationship between poor people and areas less impacted by human activity by asking three questions about the global spatial relationship between poor people and ecological intactness and how it varies by major biome and geographical region. We use infant mortality rate as a proxy for poverty and the Human Footprint as a proxy for ecological intactness, comparing global terrestrial maps of both. The analysis shows that the vast majority of the world's poor people live in extremely urban and very transformed (peri-transformed) areas. Only a small percentage of the world's most poor are found in areas that are somewhat or extremely wild: about 0.25% of the world's population. This fact has implications for the calls being made for conservation organizations to undertake poverty alleviation, suggesting that at a global scale those groups with interest in conserving wild areas would be able to contribute little to globally significant poverty alleviation efforts. However, these conservation groups are well positioned to develop new partnerships for delivery of benefits to some of the least accessible poor people in the wildest places of the world.

Conservation through utilization is a controversial strategy that deserves more attention from researchers and practitioners. This case study focuses on Abies guatemalensis, a Vulnerable Mesoamerican conifer that is illegally used for timber, shingles, charcoal and Christmas tree production. Conservation of the remnant populations would preserve some unique montane forests, with concomitant benefits for local water supplies and prevention of landslides. As a conservation tool we suggest establishment of additional A. guatemalensis Christmas tree plantations. These could generate income for local farmers and help halt poaching from natural stands. So far, 51 such plantations have been established in Guatemala but practical knowledge of cultivation is limited and production dominated by a few large plantations. Seed for Christmas tree plantations needs to be carefully selected because there are marked differences among populations in germination, seedling height increment and greenery quality. Insect pests such as the balsam twig aphid Mindarus sp. could limit cultivation. A market study showed that c. 23% of households in the major Guatemalan cities buy A. guatemalensis Christmas trees but currently only 2.3% of these are plantation-grown. The prices of illegal and certified Christmas trees are, however, converging, making plantation trees more competitive. Because of the market characteristics and the potential for establishment of plantations, we are moderately optimistic that the conservation through utilization strategy may be successful for this species in Guatemala.

The ability to measure and demonstrate the impact of conservation interventions is critical for management, accountability, and lesson-learning, yet most organizations struggle to implement appropriate, effective monitoring and evaluation. This is particularly so for community-based projects and livelihoods-focused interventions that require the use of social science methods unfamiliar to most conservation biologists. Quantitative surveys and indicator-based approaches are commonly used but are limited in their utility, and ignore a wealth of potentially valuable qualitative and anecdotal information on impact and change. Here we describe a method for standardizing the collection and analysis of stories of change that originated in, and is commonly employed by, the development sector. Trials of the use of the Most Significant Change method in a range of Fauna & Flora International's partnership projects revealed not only its value as a monitoring tool alongside more familiar surveys and quantitative data collection but also as a participatory management tool that improved staff capacity and project adaptive management and responsiveness. Although initially time-consuming to establish and implement, it has been embraced by these projects as a beneficial addition to monitoring and evaluation. The consequent interest it has raised amongst other conservation practitioners suggests that it warrants further testing and application. Conservationists would do well to learn from the tools and experiences of the development sector when exploring the social impacts of conservation projects.

Aquilaria crassna, a tree species on CITES Appendix II and categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is the main source of the highly valuable, fragrant and resinous agarwood that is extracted in forests in South-east Asia, exported to East Asian and Arab countries, and used for a range of medicinal, aromatic and religious products. Based on interviews with local, non-local and foreign harvesters in Laos we examined the relationships between harvesters' daily net revenue from agarwood extraction, their degree of commercialization (i.e. their differential access to markets) and their ability to target harvesting towards the small fraction of trees that do contain commercial qualities and quantities of agarwood. For comparison we included data on number of trees felled during the most recent harvesting trip. The analysis showed that poor targeting ability and low degree of commercialization were associated with low daily net revenues, whereas good targeting ability and high degree of commercialization were associated with high daily net revenues. In the case of A. crassna in Laos it therefore appears that the activities of highly commercialized harvesters are less harmful to A. crassna populations than those of less specialized, local harvesters.

The apparent increase in elephant Loxodonta africana numbers in northern Botswana is of concern because it may affect other species. We compared changes in population growth rates based on elephant numbers and densities over 1973–2004. Population estimates and survey details extracted from published and unpublished sources allowed us to calculate growth rates. From 1973 to 1993 growth rate was positive when based on elephant numbers but did not differ from zero when calculated for densities. This discrepancy may be because of the significant increase in survey area during the same period. In contrast, none of the growth rates differed from zero for time series between 1996 and 2004, when the size of the survey area varied little. We propose two explanations for these results. The first suggests that the population did not grow, while the second proposes that the population expanded its range and increased in size. Notwithstanding, an equilibrium model best explained the variance in dry season estimates of elephant numbers for the complete time series. Such apparent density-dependence could be disrupted by any artificial reduction of numbers through culling as a management option in northern Botswana.

The island of Siberut in the Mentawai Archipelago, west of Sumatra, Indonesia, supports four of the five primate species endemic to the Archipelago, all categorized as threatened on the IUCN Red List. As a baseline for future research on the ecology and conservation of Siberut's primates we used a line-transect approach to survey primates in the Peleonan forest, site of the Siberut Conservation Project in northern Siberut. In 104 km of surveys we made a total of 391 observations of primates and estimated density and population sizes for the Project's 10.7 km2 main study site. Overall primate biomass density was estimated to be 697 kg km-2 and abundances, in individuals km-2, were: pig-tailed snub-nosed langur Simias concolor, 53.1; Siberut macaque Macaca siberu, 16.2; Kloss's gibbon Hylobates klossii, 8.9; Mentawai langur Presbytis potenziani, 8.2. These results confirm those from earlier studies that in undisturbed and unhunted primary forests S. concolor is more successful than the sympatrically occurring P. potenziani. Results for all species suggest considerable population sizes on the island and underline its importance for the conservation of Mentawai primates.

Over the past 15 years the Tanzanian government has promoted participatory forest management (both joint forest management and community-based forest management) as a major strategy for managing natural forests for sustainable use and conservation. Such management is currently either operational or in the process of being established in > 3.6 million ha of forest land and in > 1,800 villages. Data from three case studies of forests managed using participatory and non-participatory forest management approaches suggest that community involvement in forest management is correlated with improving forest condition. In our first case study we demonstrate increasing basal area and volume of trees per ha over time in miombo woodland and coastal forest habitats under participatory forest management compared with similar forests under state or open access management. In our second case study three coastal forest and sub-montane Eastern Arc forests under participatory forest management show a greater number of trees per ha, and mean height and diameter of trees compared to three otherwise similar forests under state management. In our third case study levels of cutting in coastal forest and Eastern Arc forests declined over time since initiation in participatory forest management sites. We conclude that participatory forest management is showing signs of delivering impact in terms of improved forest condition in Tanzanian forests but that further assessments need to be made to verify these initial findings.

Managers in southern Africa are concerned that continually increasing elephant populations will degrade ecosystems. Culling, translocation and birth control are flawed solutions. An alternative is providing elephants more space but this hinges on identifying landscape preferences. We examined two diverse ecosystems and uncovered similarities in elephant habitat use, expressing these as ‘rules’. We considered arid Etosha National Park, (Namibia) and the tropical woodlands of Tembe Elephant Park (South Africa) and Maputo Elephant Reserve (Mozambique). Landscape data consisted of vegetation types, distances from water and settlements. To surmount issues of scale and availability we incorporated elephant movements as a function that declined as distance from an elephant's location increased. This presumes that elephants optimize trade-offs between benefiting from high-quality resources and costs to find them. Under a likelihood-based approach we determined the important variables and shapes of their relationships to evaluate and compare models separated by gender, season and location. After considering elephants' preferences for areas nearby, habitat use usually increased with proximity to water in all locations. Elephants sought places with high proportions of vegetation, especially when neighbouring areas had low vegetative cover. Lastly, elephants avoided human settlements (when present), and cows more so than bulls. In caricature, elephants preferred to move little, drink easily, eat well, and avoid people. If one makes more areas available, elephants will probably favour areas near water with high vegetative cover (of many different types) and away from people. Managers can oblige elephants’ preferences by supplying them. If so, they should anticipate higher impacts to neighbouring vegetation.

Collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been promoted in India as a strategy to aid wildlife conservation whilst simultaneously alleviating poverty, and recent legislation now gives communities living within protected areas the legal right to collect NTFPs. However, research on the financial rewards from NTFP collection and its contribution to sustainable development is equivocal. In a case study in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, India, we examined whether NTFP collection can solve livelihood problems by analysing revenues obtained from various NTFP species, estimating the economic returns to collectors from various social backgrounds, and exploring the attitudes of collectors towards their profession. We found that black damar resin from the tree Canarium strictum (61.3%) and mace from Myristica spp. (35.5%) were the most commonly collected NTFPs, and the most valuable NTFPs were honey from Apis cerana indica (USD 4.12 kg-1), cardamom Elettaria cardamomum (USD 3.67 kg-1) and Myristica spp. (USD 2.77 kg-1). Mean daily revenue from NTFP collection was USD 3.15 ± SD 4.19 day-1, and the lowest daily revenues were earned by part-time collectors with low socio-economic status such as migrants, forest-dwellers or those without access to agricultural land. Most collectors (82%) did not wish to continue harvesting NTFPs if alternative livelihoods from agriculture could be provided, and none wanted their children to be NTFP collectors. Our findings suggest that, with respect to social justice, poverty alleviation and environmental sustainability, the role of NTFP collection in sustainable development is questionable.

Biodiversity conservation is increasingly expected to reduce poverty where the two coincide. Yet conservation and poverty are multifaceted concepts and the linkages between them are complex and variable; whether and how conservation contributes to poverty reduction in practice will depend on the specific nature of those linkages. To unravel this complexity we explored the portfolio of Fauna & Flora International, an international conservation organization operating in some of the poorest countries and regions. We examined reports from 88 projects and categorized the rationales, approaches and outcomes of a sample of 34 livelihoods-focused projects. Rationales varied among and within projects and included apparent ‘win-win’ scenarios (reducing poverty improves conservation outcomes), trade-offs (conservation action hurts the poor or poverty reduction damages biodiversity), and situations where livelihoods interventions were not directly linked to conservation gains. Projects revealed a balance of direct (income, food security, health) and indirect (capacity building, reduced vulnerability, governance, empowerment) livelihood goals. Overall, empowerment, security and social network development were more significant short-term outcomes than income generation. Social responsibility was widely embedded but does not necessarily translate into a positive impact on poverty. Conservation organizations have the potential to improve the lives of the poor in many places where they operate, and arguably a duty to ensure that conservation does not make poor people worse off. Yet it is important to be clear about the reasons for engaging and the scope and scale of likely outcomes.