Hunting of wildlife in Central Africa is largely considered to be unsustainable. Several studies indicate that most mammal species should already have disappeared from many Central African forests but markets continue to be supplied with bushmeat, with no sign of large scale extinction of the most common species. Most studies of the sustainability of duiker (Cephalophus spp.) hunting in Central Africa are based on the same index of hunting. We illustrate how uncertainty is accumulated in these estimations of sustainability. We show that the results obtained in different sites are not comparable because a variety of methods have been used to calculate the parameters of the model and each of the methods has different sources of error. For the assessment of maximum sustainable harvest for duikers, the studies reviewed differ mainly in the value chosen for the hypothetical adjustment factor, and the method used to calculate the rate of maximum population increase and to estimate duiker population densities. For the assessment of annual hunting offtake the studies differ mainly in the scale at which they were conducted (village or regional), and sampling and extrapolation methods. Without evaluation of accuracy and standardization of methods for the estimation of maximum sustainable harvest and annual offtake, conclusions regarding harvesting based on biological indices should be treated with extreme caution.

Human-elephant conflict, in particular the damage caused by elephants to smallholder crops, is a major challenge to the conservation of African elephant Loxodonta africana. Conventional tools used to address this problem are capital intensive and require high levels of expertise. In recent years simple, affordable farm-based elephant deterrents, using locally available materials, have been encouraged by a number of human-elephant conflict researchers. There are very few published studies demonstrating the performance of these deterrents, however, and little is known about levels of uptake among smallholder farmers. We trialled a number of such farm-based elephant deterrents with local farmers in three sites within Laikipia District, Kenya. Levels of crop raiding declined after the introduction of treatments but not significantly when compared with control farms. Variable levels of uptake among the participating farmers made it difficult to draw clear conclusions from the trials. However, participating farmers were positive about the deterrent effect of the tools introduced, corroborated by their willingness to make financial commitments towards sustaining future trials. Availability of household labour, local politics, and insecurity were identified as important barriers to uptake of some of the deterrents introduced. Household labour availability should be a key consideration in future endeavours to trial farm-based elephant deterrents.

In the recent past many international conservation institutions, including the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), have addressed the relationship between their work and poverty. The empirical evidence suggests that while it is not the case that large numbers of the global poor are engaged in trading CITES-listed species, in particular cases the trade in such species may be important to the livelihoods of the poor at the local level. The approach of CITES to poverty issues has evolved over time. Prompted in part by their experience of the trade in Harpagophytum spp. the Parties to CITES, at the last two meetings of the Conference of the Parties, adopted decisions that accepted an obligation to take into account the impacts of CITES listings on the livelihoods of the poor and initiated a process to assist countries that wish to do this. These decisions, while respecting the primary focus of the CITES Convention on conservation, have some affinities with the ‘Do no harm’ approach to the livelihoods of the poor. The process will produce guidelines and rapid assessment tools. If these guidelines and tools are to be effective they will need to take account of the context-specific nature of solutions in this area. The CITES case provides lessons for other international conservation institutions whose activities affect the livelihoods of the poor at the local level.

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification promises international consumers that ‘green-label’ timber has been logged sustainably. However, recent research indicates that this is not true for ipê (Tabebuia spp.), currently flooding the US residential decking market, much of it logged in Brazil. Uneven or non-application of minimum technical standards for certification could undermine added value and eventually the certification process itself. We examine public summary reports by third-party certifiers describing the evaluation process for certified companies in the Brazilian Amazon to determine the extent to which standards are uniformly applied and the degree to which third-party certifier requirements for compliance are consistent among properties. Current best-practice harvest systems, combined with Brazilian legal norms for harvest levels, guarantee that no certified company or community complies with FSC criteria and indicators specifying species-level management. No guidelines indicate which criteria and indicators must be enforced, or to what degree, for certification to be conferred by third-party assessors; nor do objective guidelines exist for evaluating compliance for criteria and indicators for which adequate scientific information is not yet available to identify acceptable levels. Meanwhile, certified companies are expected to monitor the long-term impacts of logging on biodiversity in addition to conducting best-practice forest management. This burden should reside elsewhere. We recommend a clarification of ‘sustained timber yield’ that reflects current state of knowledge and practice in Amazonia. Quantifiable verifiers for best-practice forest management must be developed and consistently employed. These will need to be flexible to reflect the diversity in forest structure and dynamics that prevails across this vast region. We offer suggestions for how to achieve these goals.

Botanists have been urged to help assess the conservation status of all known plant species. For resource-poor and biodiversity-rich countries such assessments are scarce because of a lack of, and access to, information. However, the wide range of biodiversity and geographical resources that are now freely available on the internet, together with local herbarium data, can provide sufficient information to assess the conservation status of plants. Such resources were used to review the vascular plant species endemic to Trinidad and Tobago and to assess their conservation status. Fifty-nine species were found to be endemic, much lower than previously stated. Using the IUCN Red List criteria 18 endemic species were assessed as Critically Endangered, 16 as Endangered, 15 as Vulnerable, three as Near Threatened, and three as Data Deficient (i.e. insufficient data are available to assess their conservation status). Although such rapid assessments cannot replace in depth research, they provide essential baseline information to target research and conservation priorities and identify specific conservation actions.

The Green Corridor of Argentina and Brazil is the largest forest remnant of the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest. The jaguar population of this region is highly fragmented and reduced. To assess the status of the subpopulation of jaguars of the Green Corridor we conducted four camera-trap surveys in three sites with different levels of protection. At Urugua-í (34 stations, 1,495 trap-days) we recorded one individual (minimum density = 0.12–0.33 per 100 km2). At Yabotí Biosphere Reserve (42 stations, 1,871 trap-days) we recorded two individuals (minimum density = 0.11–0.25 per 100 km2). At Iguazú National Park we conducted two surveys. In 2004 (39 stations, 1,839 trap-days) we recorded four adult individuals, estimating a density of between 0.49 ± 0.16 and 1.07 ± 0.33 per 100 km2. In 2006, we increased the area sampled (47 stations, 2,059 trap-days) and recorded 11 adult individuals, estimating a density of 0.93 ± 0.2 to 1.74 ± 0.34 per 100 km2. These density estimates are the lowest recorded for the species. Estimates for Iguazú are between 2–7.5 times lower than those reported in the early 1990s. This population decline probably results from the interaction of several factors, including lack of prey as a result of poaching and persecution. We estimate that there is currently a population of 25–53 adult jaguars in the Green Corridor. In spite of having sufficient potential habitat available this population is threatened and urgent conservation action is required.

Conflict between people and elephants in Africa is widespread yet many solutions target the symptoms, rather than the underlying causes, of this conflict. To manage this conflict better the underlying causes of the problem need to be examined. Here we examine factors underlying spatial use by elephants and people along the Okavango Panhandle in Ngamiland, northern Botswana, to provide ways to address the causes of the conflict between elephants and people. We found that (1) elephant spatial use was a function of season, (2) spatial use did not differ between breeding herds and bull groups, (3) spatial use by elephants and people only overlapped significantly at night, during the dry season, (4) crop raiding by elephants was a function of season and social grouping, and (5) crop raiding by elephants had social and economic implications. Based on these results we suggest measures to manipulate elephant spatial use to reduce the causes of this conflict. We also reflect on present compensation measures for elephant crop damage and advocate that a more direct performance payment approach may benefit both the Botswana Government and local farmers.

Conservation planners often seek short cuts when making decisions about land use by directing management towards one or a few species that will benefit the wider ecosystem. The umbrella species concept is one such proposed short cut. An umbrella species comprises a population of individuals of a particular species whose resource requirements and habitat needs encompass the sufficient home ranges and resource needs of viable populations of co-occurring species. We examined the 17 published criteria available to identify a potential umbrella species and recommend that conservation managers wishing to apply this concept could focus on only seven criteria: well-known biology; large home range size; high probability of population persistence; co-occurrence of species of conservation interest; management needs that are beneficial to co-occurring species; sensitivity to human disturbance; and ease of monitoring. We note however, that rigorous assessment of candidate umbrella species requires such detailed knowledge of candidate and co-occurring species that it seems less of a short cut than planners may wish.

Industrial logging is expanding rapidly in Central African rainforests. We suggest that logging operations in this region pose an indirect threat to nesting marine turtles, especially the Critically Endangered leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea. This occurs because some logs are being lost or abandoned during downriver transport to coastal timber yards; the lost logs float out to sea and then often wash ashore, where they accumulate on beaches used by nesting turtles. We used a light aircraft to survey logs along the entire coastline of Gabon, and also studied the impacts of logs at Pongara Beach, one of the world's most important turtle nesting areas, during the 2002-2003 and 2003-2004 breeding seasons. Nearly 11,000 lost logs were counted along Gabon's beaches, with an estimated commercial value of USD 11.1 million. Logs were unevenly distributed along the coast, reaching a peak density of 247 logs km-1. At Pongara, logs blocked 30.5% of the beach. These logs had a number of negative effects on marine turtles, causing 8-14% of all nesting attempts (n = 2,163) to be aborted or disrupted. Initiatives to remove lost logs and driftwood from critical nesting beaches may be the most effective means to reduce their deleterious impacts on threatened marine turtles.

This study updates the status and conservation of the Endangered Asian elephant Elephas maximus in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. Line transect indirect surveys, block surveys for elephant signs, village surveys of elephant-human conflict incidents, guard-post surveys for records of sightings, and surveys of elephant food plants were undertaken during the dry and wet seasons of 2001. A minimum of 11 elephants and a maximum of 15-17 elephants was estimated for c. 500 km2 of the Park and its vicinity. The elephants are largely confined to the southern boundary of the Park and make extensive use of the adjoining La Nga State Forest Enterprises. During the dry season the elephants depend on at least 26 species of wild and cultivated plants, chiefly the fruits of cashew. Most of the villages surveyed reported some elephant-human conflict. Two adult male elephants seem to cover a large area to raid crops, whereas the family groups restrict themselves to a few villages; overall, the conflict is not serious. Since 2001 there have been no reports of any deaths or births of elephants in the Park. We make recommendations for habitat protection and management, increasing the viability of the small population, reducing elephant-human conflicts, and improving the chances of survival of the declining elephants of this Park. The Government has now approved an Action Plan for Urgent Conservation Areas in Vietnam that calls for the establishment of three elephant conservation areas in the country, including Cat Tien National Park.

The grey-winged cotinga Tijuca condita was first described in 1980 from an old specimen, misidentified as a congener. Field observations came later, from two remote, high-elevation forests in the mountains of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Both involved only a few pairs of birds at best, making this species one of the least known in the world. Accurately defining the locations this species inhabits is an obvious prerequisite for designing conservation strategies to protect it. Using remotely sensed data on elevation and forest cover we mapped this species’ habitat and predicted six more sites where it may occur. Field surveys confirmed two of them, doubling the known range of the species. The two easternmost predicted sites did not contain the species but these areas have less annual rainfall than other sites, which may explain the absences. This research serves as an important guide to conservation actions, for it uncovered biologically important areas for this species that had been previously overlooked. It has also measured the remaining habitat of the species so that any future losses can be detected.

In an attempt to identify the critical threats to avian biodiversity in Greece we present and analyse a data set of the birds received at a rehabilitation centre. During a 10-year period (1996–2005) a total of 21,190 birds were admitted to the Hellenic Wildlife Hospital from throughout Greece. Our results indicate that shooting is by far the most important threat to birds in Greece, followed by accidents. Although greater numbers of shot birds were received during the autumn and winter months, when hunting is allowed, birds were received year-round. Birds were received from all areas of Greece, with the highest number received during the summer months. The high number of shot birds received during the months in which hunting is prohibited demonstrates the lack of law enforcement. We argue the need for direct political decisions concerning the enforcement of existing regulations on hunting. Decision makers and managers could use the findings of our study to re-evaluate and design conservation policy in Greece, including reduction of the hunting period and restriction on hunting activities.

Increasing rates of habitat loss and human occupation are creating demands for optimum strategies that maximize conservation efforts, despite the lack of detailed data required for implementation. Broad scale biogeographical data may furnish initial guidelines for conservation planning in a hierarchical framework for establishing conservation priorities and helping guide future research programmes. This approach may be critical in regions for which few detailed data on diversity, abundance and distribution are available, such as in the Cerrado biome of central Brazil. We used a macroecological approach, based on the extent of occurrence of 127 species of terrestrial vertebrates endemic to the Cerrado, to design a regional network of potential areas that represent all species at least once. The final network has a total of 24 regions widely distributed throughout the biome. We also evaluated these regions in terms of their human occupation by adding a cost for each cell based on 23 variables expressing variation in agricultural, demographic and cattle-ranching patterns on the Cerrado. Our analyses showed that conservation efforts should be concentrated in the south and south-east of the biome. This macroecological approach can provide broad guidelines for conservation and define the focus for more local and realistic conservation efforts.

To determine the status and distribution of the Vulnerable Marco Polo sheep or argali Ovis ammon polii surveys were made in the Pamir Mountains, where the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Kunlun ranges meet. In China a total of 851 Marco Polo sheep were observed within the Taxkorgan Nature Reserve and 1,448 north of the Reserve. No reliable population estimate is available for Tajikistan but in five census blocks totalling 1,977 km2 densities ranged from negligible to 1.4 km−2. A total of 624 sheep were counted in Afghanistan, and total numbers may approach 1,000. Fewer than 150 individuals are said to visit Pakistan seasonally. Hunting for meat has decimated the Marco Polo sheep populations in all four countries but with better protection they appear to be on the increase in China. Transboundary cooperation is essential if the species is to be adequately protected and managed as argali readily cross international borders, and a four-country Pamir Peace Park has been proposed and is under discussion.

Numerous studies have documented behavioural changes in wildlife because of human disturbance. Disturbance may threaten waders if there are no alternative habitats or foraging times. Here we compared human and dog densities, natural and anthropogenic disturbance rates, prey availability and wader foraging rates at five sites in and around Khao Sam Roi Yod National Park, Thailand, with different shorebird densities, to assess whether disturbance forced wintering waders to under-use high quality sites consistently. We also examined diel and tidal variability in prey densities and tested whether people and dogs cause temporary displacement or reductions in foraging rates. Although there were significant differences in shorebird, human and dog densities as well as anthropogenic disturbance rates and prey availability amongst the five sites, there was no indication that birds were being displaced from the highest quality habitat. There was little diel or tidal variation in most types of prey. People did not temporarily displace waders but did reduce foraging rates. The availability of high quality, alternative foraging habitat with low human disturbance, and nocturnal prey availability, along with the lack of any short-term displacement of birds from areas of high disturbance suggest that disturbance is unlikely to affect wader fitness in this National Park. By examining a range of important habitat characteristics and wader spatial distributions, our study demonstrates a method and a theoretical framework to evaluate the possible impacts of human disturbance on wildlife.

The Madagascar flat-tailed tortoise Pyxis planicauda is threatened with extinction through loss of its deciduous, dry forest habitat and illegal collection for the pet trade. Little is known of the population status of this species as no systematic survey across its range has previously been conducted. Surveying P. planicauda is problematic as it has cryptic colouration, is only active during the wet season, and spends periods of time hidden under leaf litter. In this study we designed a line transect survey, which incorporated an approximation of the amount of time tortoises were available for sampling, to produce an unbiased estimate of population size. We estimated density of P. planicauda in the main forest block in central Menabe, which represents the majority of its range, to be 0.40 ha-1 with a total population size of nearly 28,000 individuals (95% confidence interval 16,323-47,669). This estimate is substantially higher than previous predictions of <10,000 individuals. Nevertheless, the species faces ongoing threats from deforestation and probably from illegal collection, although the recent designation of the Menabe forest as a protected area will probably help reduce these threats. This study provides a baseline density estimate of P. planicauda and a survey protocol for monitoring future population trends.

Indian Ocean seabirds are subject to numerous threats, and populations are thought to be at a fraction of historical levels. We carried out a rapid assessment of the seabird breeding populations of the Chagos Archipelago, a UK Overseas Territory, during early March 2006. We surveyed 26 islands covering the four island groups of the Archipelago. A total of 17 species of breeding seabird were recorded. Since the last survey in 1996, nine species showed reductions in the number of breeding pairs, with brown noddy Anous stolidus and lesser noddy Anous tenuirostris showing reductions of c. 22,000 and c. 27,000 pairs, respectively. These reductions, coupled with apparent sooty tern Sterna fuscata colony relocations, are central to our suggested changes to the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) criteria in the Archipelago and we propose two new sites for IBA status. We discuss our findings within a regional conservation context and provide recommendations for the implementation of an annual monitoring scheme of Chagos seabird populations to allow appropriate conservation management.

Many of Madagascar's endemic chameleon species have restricted ranges and require relatively intact forest for survival but information on their response to habitat degradation is generally lacking, especially in western deciduous forests. We assessed the abundance and density of endemic chameleons from nocturnal surveys of roosting animals in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in western Madagascar. We found 444 Brookesia brygooi, 192 B. perarmata, 98 B. exarmata, 22 Furcifer nicosiai and two F. cf. petteri. The highest pooled density was for B. brygooi (53.2 ha-1), followed by B. perarmata (29.2 ha-1) and B. exarmata (18.7 ha-1). B. brygooi was ubiquitous, with the highest density and abundance in the disturbed Ankazomanga forest outside the Park, where the similarly sized B. perarmata was absent. B. perarmata, a species endemic to the Park, was abundant in three of the five survey sites, especially where there was a well-developed leaf litter and understorey. B. exarmata, a species endemic to the Bemaraha plateau, was associated with an open understorey and small protrusions of limestone karst. Spatial variation in the density of B. perarmata is an important consideration when interpreting monitoring data and this species is a conservation priority because of its restricted distribution and apparent sensitivity to forest degradation.

Population units that merit separate management and are of conservation concern have been called evolutionary significant units. Two divergent lineages of the European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus occur naturally in Spain, with a well-marked geographical distribution. We analysed the frequency and importance of rabbit translocations in central-southern Spain and whether this practice, carried out by hunters and conservationists, could cause the mixture of two clearly different evolutionary significant units. We carried out interviews in 1993 and 2002 at 60 locations to determine the presence and intensity of translocations during both decades. The distribution of the lineages was obtained using mtDNA analysis of hunted rabbits in 2003-2005. We demonstrate that rabbit translocation was used frequently in the 1980s and increased in the 1990s. Up to 43% of the studied areas translocated rabbits in the latter decade, whereas only 25% did so in the 1980s. Our results show that neither the origin of the introduced rabbits nor their genetic lineage were taken into account in most of the translocations. We found rabbits of lineage A in several localities within the distribution area of lineage B, and vice versa, probably as a consequence of translocations. The distribution of both lineages is likely to have been altered by human activity and this could represent the loss of the results of 2 million years of genetic differentiation with possible attendent ecological consequences. Consequently, authorities should more closely regulate rabbit translocations and convey to both hunters and conservationists the importance of not mixing the lineages by translocations.

The Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata is on the verge of extinction in India with only c. 100 individuals remaining in the Hanle Valley of eastern Ladakh and Sikkim. Conservation planning and initiation of a recovery programme are hindered by lack of ecological information on the species and we therefore assessed the biotic and abiotic correlates of its occurrence in the Hanle Valley. Ecological attributes of areas selected by gazelles were compared with those of adjoining areas without gazelles. Resource selection functions revealed that gazelles use relatively flat areas (6-15°) disproportionately during both summer and winter, and preferred south-facing slopes and avoided north-facing slopes during winter. Measurements of plant production using exclosures showed that herbivores removed up to 47% of the forage biomass from areas without gazelles, whereas only 29% was removed from areas with gazelles. Although areas selected by gazelles were only marginally more productive than areas not selected, the proportional representation of forbs in plant biomass was significantly higher in the former. Spatial co-occurrence patterns examined using null models revealed a significant negative relationship between distribution of gazelles and goats and sheep, and a significant positive relationship between gazelles and wild kiang Equus kiang and domestic yak Bos grunniens. Future in situ recovery programmes for the Tibetan gazelle in Ladakh need to focus on securing livestock-free, forb-dominated areas, with participation from the local pastoral community.