The temporal distribution of autotrophic and heterotrophic components of the planktonic community was studied from samples collected weekly at station L4, located to the south of Plymouth, UK, from October 1992 to January 1994. Phytoplankton succession followed the typical pattern of temperate waters, the development of a summer Gyrodinium aureolumbloom being the most prominent feature. Bacterial numbers were significantly correlated with temperature during autumn and winter, whereas resource availability and predation, including viruses, appear to be the most important controlling factors in spring and summer. High mesozooplankton densities, mainly copepods, were observed throughout most of the study associated with a series of diatom blooms, and also during autumn when low phytoplankton biomass was measured. This data set was analysed in order to build up conceptual trophodynamic models whereby the role of biological communities on the cycling of organic matter could be inferred. The results obtained in this study provide empirical evidence supporting the existence of a sucession of trophic organization patterns in a coastal temperate environment. Classical models (herbivorous or microbial webs) appeared episodically whereas transition models (multivorous web) dominated throughout most of the seasonal cycle.

The Marine Nature Reserve of Lough Hyne (south-west Ireland) encompasses an extremely wide range of marine conditions within a small area. A total of 378 boulders were collected from a range of depths at five sites subjected to very different degrees of water movement and sedimentation. Encrusting biota were identified and the communities compared between sites and upper and lower surfaces. In all, 114 taxa were identified. Alpha diversity was generally found to be higher for lower surfaces at sites with intermediate flow/disturbance. Sites with high water flow had much greater space occupation, predominantly cheilostomatid bryozoans. Multivariate analyses divided the samples into six groupings. Similarity percentage analysis (SIMPER) was used to indicate particular species characteristic of each group. Equations for the species-area curves generated tended to indicate communities at equilibrium except at sites subjected to stresses such as high sediment load or high disturbance. For high disturbance sites it was apparent that number of species cm−2 was significantly negatively correlated with surface area of rock implying non-random distribution.

One hundred and three suprabenthic hauls in the Seine Estuary were taken on a marine to fresh water gradient with a modified Macer-GIROQ sledge during 1996 to collect Benthic Boundary Layer fauna. Two main species assemblages were identified along the salinity gradient: (1) a marine assemblage located in the downstream part of the estuary dominated by amphipods and mysids such as Schistomysis spp. and Gastrosaccus spp.; (2) an estuarine assemblage essentially dominated by the mysid Neomysis integer, recorded along the salinity gradient with maximal abundance observed between 15–10 psu. The decapod Palaemon longirostris and the goby Pomatoschistus microps were located in the upstream part of the estuary where they presented maximal abundances. Some species used the estuary during juvenile development such as the mysid Mesopodopsis slabberi (Van Beneden, 1861) and decapod Crangon crangon. Although the morphological characteristics of the Seine Estuary (weak estuarine area and important dredging) are different than other major European estuaries such as Gironde, Westerschelde and Ems, the longitudinal distribution of the demersal community presented similar patterns in all sites. Nevertheless, monthly sampling permitted to determine the seasonal location and abundance changes of the demersal assemblages in the Seine estuary. Marine assemblages presented maximal densities during summer and autumn while estuarine species were most abundant during spring and summer. Longitudinal changes of main demersal species during an annual cycle showed an increase of spatial distribution along the salinity gradient for marine and neritic species during spring and summer with a penetration of species in the estuary. The abundances of both assemblages were very high (annual mean >5000 ind 100 m−3) whereas the biomass of the estuarine assemblage was very important (annual mean ≅38 g ash-free dry weight 100 m−3).

The lowest photon flux density of photosynthetically active radiation at which O2-evolving marine photolithotrophs appear to be able to grow is some 10 nmol photon m−2 s−1, while marine non-O2-evolvers can grow at 4 nmol photon m−2 s−1, in both cases with the photon flux density averaged over the 24 hour L:D cycle. Constraints on the ability to grow at very low fluxes of photosynthetically active radiation fall into three categories. Category one includes essential processes whose efficiency is independent of the rate of energy input, but whose catalysts show phylogenetic variation leading to different energy costs for a given process in different taxa, e.g. light-harvesting complexes, RUBISCO and probably in the sensitivity of PsII to photodamage. The second category comprises essential processes whose efficiency decreases with decreasing energy input rate as a result of back-reactions independent of the energy input rate, e.g. charge recombination following charge separation by PsII and short-circuit H+ fluxes across the thylakoid membrane which decrease the fraction of pumped H+ which can be used in adenosine diphosphate phosphorylation. Category two also includes that component of protein turnover which cannot be related to replacement of polypeptides which were incorrectly assembled following uncorrected errors of transcription or translation, or which were damaged by processes whose rate increases with increasing energy input rate such as photodamage to PsII. The third category includes only O2-dependent damage to the D1 protein of PsII whose rate increases with a decreasing incident flux of photosynthetically active radiation. Processes in categories two and three are most likely to impose the lower limit on the photon flux density which can support photolithotrophic growth. The available literature, mainly on organisms which are not adapted to growth at very low photon flux densities, suggests that three major limitations (charge recombination in PsII, H+ leakage and slippage, and protein turnover) can individually impose lower limits in excess of 20 nmol photon m−2 s−1 on photolithotrophic growth. Furthermore, these three limitations are interactive, so that considering all three processes acting in series leads to an even higher predicted lower photon flux density limit for photolithotrophic growth.

Results from recent biological studies (including three Alvin dives in July 1997) of the southernmost deep-sea hydrothermal area known on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR), the Logatchev hydrothermal area, are described. The Logatchev area includes three vent fields, each with a different geological setting corresponding to: (1) a large sulphide mound with ‘smoking craters’; (2) an active chimney complex (known as ‘Irina-2’); and (3) a diffuse flow through soft sediment (‘Anya's Garden’). Hydrothermal communities found at these fields differ considerably: Anya's Garden is dominated by vesicomyid clams, Ectenagena sp. aff. kaikoi, Irina-2 by mytilid mussels, Bathymodiolus sp. aff. puteoserpentis, with swarms of shrimps and other rich associated fauna, whereas on the main mound the fauna as a whole is less abundant and less diverse. This is the first record of a living clam population on the MAR. Other bivalves found on the clam field included thyasirids, Thyasira (Parathyasira) spp., not reported previously from deep-sea hot vent communities. The biomass on the mussel bed at Irina-2 exceeds 70 kg m−2 (wet weight with shells) and is the highest known on the MAR. The large shrimp population at Irina-2 includes swarms of Rimicaris exoculata. A diverse shrimp fauna (including a new species Alvinocaris sp. aff. muricola) on the mussel bed is dominated by Mirocaris keldyshi. Overall the Logatchev area is dominated by mussels which may be attributable to the presence of both methane-oxidizing (dominant type) and sulphur-oxidizing bacterial symbionts in their gills. The diversity of vent organisms and biotopes at Logatchev appears to be the highest on the MAR.

The relationships between the standing stocks of deposit-feeding benthic invertebrates and benthic chlorophyll-a, phaeopigment and total combustible organic matter were investigated at a series of coastal lagoons and in the type of intertidal soft-sediment sites from which the lagoons originated. Across all the sites, in Norfolk, UK, an inverse relationship occurred between (a) the amounts of chlorophyll-a and of other potential food materials and (b) the degree of coverage by water. The biomass of consumers also decreased with increased water coverage, so that the lagoons supported less biomass than the adjacent high-level intertidal sites. Further, the deposit-feeder biomass supported by unit food decreased with extent of water coverage.

There was no evidence of any relationship between deposit-feeder and food biomass within any single site, in spite of the study period being selected to be that in which there was maximum likelihood of competition for microphytobenthic food. Whilst chlorophyll concentrations may set the maximum achievable level of consumer biomass at these sites, including in the deeper lagoons setting very low potential maximum population densities, the seasonal abundance patterns of the deposit feeders appear to be determined by other factor(s).

The seasonal organization patterns of demersal assemblages (fish and cephalopods) in the Gulf of Lions were investigated on the basis of a set of bottom trawl surveys. The use of Partial Triadic Analysis (PTA) provided a detailed representation of: (1) the common part of the spatial organization of demersal assemblages at seasonal scale; and (2) the seasonal variability of each species around this common structure. During the course of the study, demersal assemblages exhibited a strong seasonal stability in their organization patterns and only few species showed a strong seasonal variation in their spatial distribution. Demersal assemblages of the Gulf of Lions were structured primarily on the basis of a non depth coast–open sea gradient, which occurred from the coast to the midshelf region. The influence of depth on the structure of fish assemblages appeared to be only of limited importance and mainly restricted to the continental slope area. The PTA combined with contouring technics could be used to improve our knowledge of community structuring factors, and offers a theoretical framework to assess the reproducibility of multispecies structures.

Beamtrawl samples were taken monthly between January 1988 and December 1989 in 14 subtidal stations along the longitudinal axis of the Westerschelde Estuary. The estuary harboured high densities of epibenthic species (total average of 2250 ind 1000 m−2). Only 37 fish species were recorded and three mobile macroinvertebrate species were quantified. Seventeen epibenthic species were common, only eight of which were very abundant. An overall dominance of the brown shrimp Crangon crangon was noted. The near absence of anadromous and freshwater species was correlated with the low oxygen concentrations upstream the Dutch–Belgian border. The epibenthic species could be divided into a polyhaline and a mesohaline community along the main salinity–oxygen–turbidity gradients of the estuary. The mesohaline zone was characterized by higher densities and biomasses for shrimps, gobies and flatfish. The spatial structure in the epibenthic community of the polyhaline zone was more influenced by the watermasses from the sea and inflowing channels, and was correlated with the degree of exposure (current velocities and tides). A classification is proposed, based on the season in which the epibenthic species occur in the estuary, and on their life stages and abundances during that period. The monthly data demonstrate that while the eight abundant epibenthic species were generally present throughout the year (summer or winter resident), the majority tended to appear in the Westerschelde at varying times (summer, winter or bimodal) and often remained in large numbers (nine common species) for only a short time. The fact that mainly juveniles were recorded in the higher density-classes, suggests that the Westerschelde Estuary still acts as a nursery area for many epibenthic species.

The macrobenthos of the subtidal, mesohaline zone of the Schelde Estuary (Belgium) was sampled in October 1996 and 1997 at 54 and 73 sampling locations respectively. Sediments ranged from silty to very coarse, with the dominant sediment type being silt (33% of all locations). Of the 35 macrobenthic species observed, only seven species occurred in more than 20% of the samples. The polychaete Heteromastus filiformis and Oligochaeta were most common. Multivariate techniques revealed three distinct communities, linked mainly with sedimentological factors: (1) a species-poor (nine species) community with a dominance of the amphipod Bathyporeia pilosa, a low mean abundance and biomass (86 ind m−2, 0.0189 g ash-free dry weight (AFDW) m−2), and a mean median grain size of 215±19 μm (fine sand); (2) a species-rich (22) community, with the small polychaete Polydora ligerica as indicator species, a relatively high mean abundance and biomass (2298 ind m−2, 1.395 g AFDW m−2, oysters excluded), a mean median grain size of 133±41 μm, and also the occurrence of sediments with hard substrates being characteristic for this community; (3) a community with an intermediate species richness (12), abundance and biomass (248 ind m−2, 0.249 g AFDW m−2), with H. filiformis and Oligochaeta as indicator species, and a median grain size of 76±9 μm. In the study area several typical brackish water species were observed (e.g. Polydora ligerica, Corophium lacustre, Gammarus salinus).

Mean total abundance and biomass were very low, and the benthic communities appeared to be under stress, with a dominance of mainly small, subsurface deposit and surface deposit feeding opportunistic species. This is probably a combined effect of both natural physical and human-induced disturbance. Only sediments with hard substrates (e.g. rocks) seems to favour species richness, providing a shelter against physical disturbance.

The abundance and latitudinal and vertical (0-100 m) distribution of planktonic Foraminifera was investigated on the basis of 38 samples collected in November 1994 in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean (34-60°S, along 51-56°W). Mean foraminiferal densities were 1.5 ind. l−1 (range: 0.15.9 ind. l−1), with highest concentrations in subsurface waters (20-50 m). Couplings between the distribution of chlorophyll a and foraminiferal abundances were very loose. Distribution patterns of the 15 species recorded allowed 6 distinct areas to be defined along the transect surveyed. From north to south these are: Subtropical (dominated by Globigerinoides ruber and G. trilobus), Cold intrusion (Globigerinita uvula), Transitional-Subtropical and Transitional (Globigerina bulloides, Globigerina quinqueloba), Subantarctic (G. quinqueloba), and Antarctic (Neogloboquadrina pachyderma, left coiling). Close comparisons with the yields of a similar data set collected in November 1993 show very good agreement. Foraminiferal thermic régimes were also similar in 1993 and in 1994, but for some species significant differences with previous data were detected. While the southwards extensions of the ranges of warm water species are fairly well circumscribed by the Brazil current-influenced waters, several foraminifers widely used as indicators and palaeoindicators of cool waters (in particular Globigerina bulloides, Globigerina quinqueloba and Globigerinita uvula) were recorded in very significant numbers at temperatures as high as 20-24°C. The implication of these findings for hydrological, ecological, and palaeoecological interpretations is discussed.

A study was conducted between 1997 and 1999 to investigate meiofauna assemblages from selected inshore and offshore locations around the UK coast. The main objective was to relate the differences in meiofauna distribution patterns to a number of measured environmental variables and to establish more clearly the sensitivity of meiofauna communities to anthropogenic disturbance. Results from univariate and multivariate data analyses show that distinct spatial differences in species distribution patterns exist and that these correlate with the natural physical characteristics and concentrations of trace metals in the sediment. Abundance and diversity of meiofauna assemblages were generally higher offshore than inshore and this difference can be attributed to both natural processes and anthropogenic impacts. The inclusion of meiofauna in applied monitoring programmes offers the potential for improving the resolution of the spatial extent of anthropogenic impacts over that achievable from macrofauna investigations alone.

Biomass measurements (AFDW) of both subtidal and intertidal macrofauna of the ‘Abra de Bilbao’ embayment were used within a pilot study in a four step strategy of analysis, which consisted of: (1) representing communities; (2) discriminating sites or conditions; (3) determining levels of ‘stress’; and (4) linking to environmental variables. Univariate (number of species, diversity indices) as well as multivariate (clustering, MDS, SIMPER, BIO-ENV) techniques from the PRIMER package were employed. Several data aggregation levels were proposed in the analyses with the aim of selecting cost-effective procedures. The results suggested a good integration of environmental conditions by subtidal samples, which were close to constant on all different taxonomic aggregation levels. The abiotic parameter which best ‘explained’ the biotic pattern of subtidal samples in the investigated area was turbidity measured as total suspension solids and nephelometric units on the water surface. In conclusion, we recommend monitoring rocky substrates by using more extensive biomass sampling surveys of subtidal areas followed by a less time-consuming treatment of the samples (identification by high taxonomic categories or by trophic groups).

Continental shelf and upper slope fish communities were studied along the Catalan coast based on 66 experimental bottom otter trawls. A total of 79 demersal fish species were studied by means of cluster analysis and multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) ordination for community structure. Analysis revealed the existence of five major location clusters. Similarity percentage analysis (SIMPER) was determined by comparing the dissimilarity between two groups of samples using the discriminating species. Geomorphological characteristics, bottom substratum and depth showed direct influences on species assemblages. High correlation between the biotic data samples and depth was observed. The fish species assemblages identified five main demersal fish associations which corresponded with the five location clusters and with five benthic sediments (mud of the upper slope, sand and gravel, mud of the shelf, muddy-sand and sand with rocky outcrops).

The cortical development of the marine hypotrichous ciliate Holosticha warreni, found in coastal waters near Qingdao, China, was investigated using the protargol impregnation method. In the proter, disorganization of the parental adoral zone of membranelles and undulating membranes contributes to the formation of its oral primordia which replace the parental buccal apparatus completely. Cirral anlagen in both division parts derive from the breaking of primary primordia. Most midventral cirri join in the formation of these primordia which occurs de novo separately from the oral primordia. Each of the 11 to 13 oblique streaks divides into three segments (new cirri) while the last two anlagen produce four each. Two frontoterminal cirri derive from the posteriormost anlage. The marginal rows develop from the parental structure. The generation mode of dorsal kineties is of the ‘one group type’ without forming caudal cirri.

The identification of magelonids with mucronate chaetae on chaetiger 9 has long been confused. Until 1977 all corresponding European specimens were erroneously referred to Magelona papillicornis; a Brazilian species. Since then, but without any detailed study, the name M. mirabilis (originally given to a species from Scotland) has been widely employed. However, in recent years, it has become clear that two morphologically similar species coexist in European waters. Magelona mirabilis is redescribed and a neotype designated, and M. johnstoni sp. nov. is formally distinguished. Following re-examination of the other five species present in the region, a dichotomous key and a synoptic table of characters is provided for all seven European species.

A new species of Gastrophanella, G. cavernicola sp. nov. (Demospongiae: Siphonidiidae), is described from submarine caves in Fernando de Noronha Island (north-east Brazil), Carrie Bow Cay and Columbus Cay, Belize (central Western Atlantic), at depths of 5-30 m. It differs from all other species of the genus by its lobate shape with thin superficial canals and centrotylote tylostrongyles. Gastrophanella cavernicola sp. nov. is the second record of the genus Gastrophanella from both Brazil and the Caribbean. It is the sixth ‘lithistid’ sponge reported from the Brazilian coast, whereas at least 32 other desma-bearing sponges are known from the Caribbean. The genus now includes five valid species, G. implexa Schmidt from the West Indies (type species), G. mammilliformis Burton from South Africa, G. primore Gómez from the Pacific Coast of Mexico, G. stylifera Mothes & Silva from south Brazil, and G. cavernicola sp. nov. from north-east Brazil and Belize. Aciculites oxytylota Lévi & Lévi from New Caledonia is transferred to Siphonidium Schmidt. The family Siphonidiidae Lendenfeld, which is probably related to order Hadromerida, is redefined to contain only Siphonidium and Gastrophanella, both with fused rhizoclone desmas associated to microspined exotyles.

Protozooplankton growth was measured by incubation in a walk-in cooling room at 5°C of filtered seawater from six stations on a south–north transect from open water through drift ice and into fast ice in the central Barents Sea (72°30′N–76°32′N). Eight species of naked ciliates, two species of tintinnids, seven species of athecate dinoflagellates and nine species of thecate dinoflagellates grew in the 24 and 48 h bottle incubations. Maximum potential mean specific growth rates of 0.84, 0.59, 0.39 and 0.39 d−1, respectively, indicated a hierarchy in growth rates determined by taxonomic differences where growth of naked ciliates > tintinnids > athecate dinoflagellates > thecate dinoflagellates. The mean±SD in situ temperature (4 to −1.8°C) corrected growth rates (Q10=2.8) for the six stations (0.74±0.31, 0.74±0.16, 0.25±0.16, 0.23±0.27 d−1) also suggested a higher growth for ciliates in comparison to dinoflagellates. Additionally, it revealed that the naked ciliates responded to the increased food availability, whereas this was not the case for all other groups of protozooplankton.

Protozoan communities at three beaches on the Cantabrian Sea were studied. Four stations along a transect of 150 m at each beach were chosen for this study. The following parameters were measured: temperature, pH, oxidation–reduction potential, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, salinity, nitrate, phosphate, granulometry and amount of organic matter. Four groups of protozoa (ciliates, non-dinoflagellate flagellates, dinoflagellates and sarcodines) were analysed for their abundance and diversity, as well as the influence of the measured parameters on the communities. Temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen were the main factors responsible for seasonal differences. Temperature increased at the beginning of spring and summer, coinciding with growth of the protozoan community. Flagellates and dinoflagellates increased during spring and early summer. The amount of organic matter subsequently rose. The final step of this succession was the development of the ciliate community. A comparison between the same areas in 1989 and in the present study was carried out.

Diversity and biomass of ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates were analysed at six stations on a south–north transect (mimicking a time span of months in the biological succession during the Arctic spring–summer) from open water through drift ice and into fast ice (72°30′N 76°32′N) during spring 1993 in the open Barents Sea. A pycnocline was observed beneath the sea ice at 40–50 m. A diatom spring bloom beneath the ice with chlorophyll-a maximum >10 μg l−1 and a diverse protozoan community with a peak biomass of 34 μg C l−1 was associated with this bloom. Maximum biomass of tintinnids (1 μg C l−1), athecate dinoflagellates (8 μg C l−1) and thecate dinoflagellates (26 μg C l−1) were found associated with the chlorophyll-a maximum in the upper 10 m of the water column beneath the sea ice at the northern stations. In contrast, the protozooplankton community was dominated by naked ciliates at the southern open water stations. Here chlorophyll-a was low (<1 μg l−1) and the maximum biomass of protozooplankton was 10 μg C l−1 of which naked ciliates accounted for >50%.

Cell sizes and estimated carbon content of cells >11 μm, as well as depth by depth biomass of 12 species/types of naked ciliates, 12 tintinnids, 12 athecate dinoflagellates and 24 thecate dinoflagellates, are presented. The community of naked ciliates was dominated by Strombidium spp. and Strobilidium spp., the tintinnids were dominated by Parafavella spp., Ptychocylis, Leprotintinnus, Acanthostomella and Tintinnopsis. The very small gyro-/gymnodinoid cells and Gyrodinium cf. spirale dominated the athecate dinoflagellates and the thecate dinoflagellates by the heterotroph Protoperidinium spp. generally accounted for the major part of the protozooplankton biomass along the transect. The Margalef diversity index revealed lowest diversity of ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in the open water and higher at ice-associated stations. The overall diversity was coupled with prey availability in terms of food concentration, but already saturated at 0.1 μg chlorophyll-a l−1.

An earlier study of metals in the polychaete Owenia fusiformis showed that individuals within intertidal populations were remarkably variable in terms of whole-body concentrations of zinc and copper. Four populations have now been studied, two in south Cornwall (Fal Estuary and Par Sands) and one each in east Devon (Torre Abbey Sands) and north Brittany (Grève de St Michel). Investigations of the distributions of zinc and copper within the body have demonstrated that consistently zinc is concentrated in the middle body whilst copper increases to a maximum posteriorly. Zinc is accumulated in the mid-gut cells in the form of numerous spherules, 1–2 μm in diameter: X-ray microanalysis shows these to be largely composed of zinc phosphate but containing also magnesium, calcium and iron, together with sulphur and chlorine. Viewed under the microscope the spherules are greenish due to a pigment identified by high performance liquid chromatography absorption scanning as a pheophorbide-like chlorophyll-degradation product. In contrast, copper is widely distributed throughout the body and much is deposited as small granules, 0.2–0.3 μm in diameter, in laminar groupings in hypodermal and peri-intestinal tissues. The identity of the green pigment responsible for the characteristic body colour of O. fusiformis has not been specifically determined but it appears to have a copper basis since dark-green tissues have a significantly higher copper content than those with a light-green colour. The possible role of chlorophyll degradation products in zinc and copper uptake is discussed.