The detailed anatomy of the noses of Kogia breviceps and K. sima (Kogiidae: Cetacea) is described in greater detail than previously. Probable functions of component parts of the nose are deduced from their geometry and physical properties of the tissues. It is concluded that control of the air making the sound is similar to that found in scottish bagpipes with a single reed, that sounds are produced by air being forced from the vocal valve and is resonated in an unusual chamber having cords and membranes, similar to human vocal cords. It is then reflected by air filled ‘mirrors’ and conducted and intensified through a megaphone-like ‘horn’ which is surrounded by air and contains tissues rich in spermaceti oil. Sound then passes through the melon where, by changes in temperature of the spermaceti oil, it is actively focused and possibly scanned. Thermal properties of Kogia spermaceti oil are described and related to previously made sound velocity and density measurements. The way sound production and reflection can continue while large variations of pressure are experienced during deep dives, is suggested. A structure for controlling the temperature of the melon is described. It is considered unlikely that the spermaceti oil is used for buoyancy control in Kogia. Some comparisons are drawn with Physeter catodon, Xiphius and Tursiops and some implications for research on other cetaceans are outlined.

Mediterranean fish of the Trachinidae and Uranoscopidae families are characterized by a poison apparatus on the 1st dorsal fin. These fish hide by burying themselves in the sand using cryptic mimicry. Nevertheless, if they are discovered before they have completely buried themselves, or perceive a potential source of danger when already covered, they will raise their 1st dorsal fin which has a bright black spot on the inter-radial membrane. We have shown that this black vexillum acts as a threatening visual cue and that the movements accompanying black mark display can be defined as aggressive mimicry.  We therefore thought it interesting to investigate the black mark display in some species of Soleidae, a behaviour never before reported in the literature. In these fish, the black marks are situated on the right pectoral fin which, as a result of the distortion and re-arrangement of some anatomical parts during development, shifts to a dorsal position in adults. Soles also bury themselves in the sand, and they too display their marked fins on the approach of a possible predator, just like fish belonging to the above dangerous families.

Four species of sea horses (Syngnathidae: Hippocampus) were found in Peninsular Malaysia during a survey conducted between April and August 2001. These were Hippocampus trimaculatus, H. spinosissimus, H. kuda and H. kelloggi. All four species were found in the Straits of Malacca; two species (H. trimaculatus and H. spinosissimus) in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia in the South China Sea; and three species: H. trimaculatus, H. spinosissimus and H. kuda in the south coast, Straits of Johor. There were habitat and depth separations by species. Hippocampus trimaculatus, which was found throughout the coastal waters of the Peninsular, were reported to inhabit chiefly among gorgonians at approximately 20–40 m depth. The habitat and depth in H. spinosissimus were rather similar to that of H. trimaculatus; but the former species was less widespread in the west coast. Hippocampus kuda was confined to shallow water between 1 to 3 m, and was found in seaweeds and sea grass meadows in a few estuaries; whereas H. kelloggi inhabited gorgonians and sea whips in deep-water below 65 m. Mean standard lengths are given. No sexual size dimorphism was detected in any of the species.

A comparative morphological study was performed on the otolith growth patterns of 11 species of the genus Merluccius. The otolith growth pattern, based on the radius of the first eight growth increments (GI) from the otolith core, was determined from transverse sections of sagitta otoliths. The structure and periodicity of the GI were identified based on previous knowledge. Two cluster analyses were performed using GI width as a proxy for otolith growth. The first cluster analysis corresponded to the juvenile (immature) period of the fish including the mean width of the first four GI. The second analysis compared the mean width of the next four GI, i.e. those corresponding to mature fish. The results showed an important environmental influence in immature fish; while after maturation, the GI pattern was also related to an endogenous influence depending on the phylogenetic line.

Total arsenic concentrations were determined in three teleost species (herring Clupea harengus; cod Gadus morhua, and flounder Platichthys flesus) taken from four locations in the Baltic and North Sea with salinities ranging from 8 to 32 psu. Individual arsenic concentrations ranged from 0·04 to 10·9 mg/kg wet mass, and there was a positive linear relationship between arsenic concentration and salinity for all three species (r2 0·44 to 0·72, all P<0·001). Although it is well known that marine fish contain much higher concentrations of arsenic than do freshwater fish, the data reported here are the first showing a relationship between the total arsenic concentration in fish and salinity.

The locomotor performance of the Mediterranean sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus was investigated under laboratory conditions. Individuals were placed singly in the centre of a glass surface positioned either horizontally or vertically in tanks with seawater, and their locomotor activity was recorded. For locomotion on a horizontal surface, speed increased with both sea urchin diameter and their straightness of path. Speeds on a vertical surface were size-independent and not related to the straightness of path, although they were affected by vertical path orientation, with the highest speeds occurring for downward movements and the slowest speeds for the upward movements. Taken together, these results suggest that the scaling of sea urchin locomotion may follow similar laws to those of legged animals, for which locomotor performance increases with size on horizontal surface, while their relative cost of locomotion increases with body size on inclined surfaces. It is suggested that differences in horizontal vs vertical locomotion may also be related to differences in the underlying locomotor mechanisms, i.e. using adhesive appendices (tube feet) or levers (spines). In a second experiment, the sea urchin speed obtained during a negative phototactic response to a direct light stimulus was recorded. The results show that speed during light stimulation is higher than that during spontaneous locomotion in sea urchins of intermediate size (2·5–4 cm), suggesting that, in addition to the direction of locomotion as shown by previous studies, light can also have an effect on speed.

Size at sexual maturity was studied in Zidona dufresnei through analysis of gonadal tissue samples and secondary sexual characters. Individuals were sampled during two reproductive seasons (austral spring–summer) in the Mar del Plata area, Argentina. Gonadosomatic index was estimated for males and oocyte size frequency was used to estimate the stage of gonadal development in females. Gonadal maturity occurred prior to the development of secondary sexual characters. Size at first gonadal maturity in females was 12·8 cm shell length and in males 12·0 cm shell length, but size at which 50% of the population was mature was 15·7 cm in females and 15·0 cm in males. The results of this study could help to establish a minimal catching size.

The mudsnail Hydrobia ulvae, primary host to a number of digeneans, was studied to check whether parasite effects on individual hosts could have repercussion on population size structure and dynamics. Three different mudsnail populations were monitored monthly in Arcachon Bay, south-west France. Arguin is a moderately sheltered oceanic sandflat and a bird reserve, La Canelette is a sheltered sandflat near a harbour and Lette Douce is a sheltered salt marsh. Parasite prevalence differed among the three stations, with no obvious seasonal pattern: 0–16% at Arguin, 0–6% at La Canelette and 1–5% at Lette Douce. Between four and five digenean species were identified, with Haploporidae dominating at Arguin and Notocotylidae dominating at Lette Douce. Prevalence increased with snail shell height. Large snails from Arguin were heavily parasitized, but suddenly disappeared between December 1998 and January 1999. The snail size distribution was consequently modified. To test whether digenean-induced mortality could be involved, a 50-d laboratory experiment was performed. Mudsnails hosting digeneans with rediae (as Haploporidae or Heterophyidae) displayed significantly higher mortality rates than mudsnails hosting sporocysts (as Microphallidae) or healthy mudsnails. The present study demonstrates that digenean parasites induce population structure changes and shorten lifespan of mudsnails, through increasing size-dependent mortality.

Samples of the New Zealand cockle Austrovenus stutchburyi (Veneridae) collected at two different intertidal levels were found to be heavily infected by the echinostome trematode Curtuteria australis which use the mud flat whelk Cominella glandiformis and shorebirds as first and definitive host, respectively. Parasite loads were on average more than 2-fold higher at the high site than at the low site, whereas the density of Curtuteria australis metacercariae per square metre showed the opposite trend. This pattern appeared unrelated to the abundance of first intermediate hosts and C. australis prevalence within this host that did not differ between sites. At both sites there was a positive relationship between parasite load and cockle condition, a likely by-product of the relationship between condition-based filtration capacity and the rate at which individual cockles encounter the free-swimming trematode larvae. The results suggest that the between-site variation in parasitism is a consequence of the much higher density of cockles at the low site. There, the dense cockle population is able to clear the water column of parasites and consequently individual cockles virtually ‘compete’ for parasite larvae. This will depress mean infection intensity per cockle but elevate mean parasite density per square metre.

Darina solenoides (Mactridae), a common intertidal bivalve in the Argentine Patagonian coast, serves as both first and second intermediate host for the gymnophallid Bartolius pierrei (Trematoda: Digenea). Cercariae enter the clams actively by piercing the mantle border; young metacercariae ascend along the space between the outer mantle epithelium and shell and they settle in the dorsal general extrapallial space just ahead of the posterior adductor muscle. Host reaction comprises mantle tissue alterations (hyperplasia and metaplasia) leading to the encapsulation of the metacercariae by the formation of a one-cell-layer thick sac, which progressively detaches from the mantle epithelium. Sacs containing fully developed metacercariae, which are surrounded by a hyaline non-cellular envelope, become internal and are found in the postero-dorsal region of the visceral mass. Two sacs usually containing from two to 44 metacercariae, one at each side of the clam, were observed. In some cases, in which the infection seems not to proceed as usual, dead and dying metacercariae and their debris were found in the same position within the extrapallial space where the host reaction usually starts. In these cases, the mantle reaction is accompanied by an inner shell surface alteration consisting of calcium carbonate deposits partially surrounding the reaction complex or other abnormal calcifications in the form of loose mineral concretions.

The holotype of the Antarctic octopodid Graneledone setebos was re-examined and found to lack the epidermal warts characteristic of the genus Graneledone. It is similar in its large size to another Southern Ocean species, Megaleledonesenoi. A comparative study of G. setebos and specimens attributed to M. senoi led us to conclude that M. senoi is a junior synonym of G. setebos. Although M. senoi is not valid, the genus Megaleledone can be separated from other genera by the structure of the radula (which lacks marginal plates) and we therefore consider the genus to be valid. We propose the new combination of Megaleledone setebos and have refigured the beaks and radula of the holotype herein and expanded the description. A search of museum specimens and the literature shows that Megaleledone setebos is more common in Antarctic waters than previously supposed.

Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, normally live in social aggregations (schools) but rarely aggregate in laboratory tanks. In order to study the effect of stress on solitary living we tethered krill to wooden skewers and measured heart rate both when they were held isolated from conspecifics and when they were held at normal schooling distances (∼1 body length). Heart rate did not differ significantly with sex or body size. However, intermoult krill had a significantly lower heart rate than postmoult animals. When two individuals were held at schooling distance, with one slightly higher in the water column than the other, the heart rate of the higher individual slowed significantly (106–98 beats min−1), while that of the lower individual remained the same. We interpret these results to mean that krill living solitarily are stressed but will respond to neighbouring individuals by decreasing their metabolic rate and saving energy.

Demographic and life history characteristics of the intertidal isopod Excirolana braziliensis (Isopoda: Cirolanidae) were compared between populations of two exposed sandy beaches with contrasting morphodynamics (reflective vs dissipative) during 22 consecutive months. Most population processes and life history traits did not give support for the ‘habitat harshness hypothesis’ (HHH): abundance of males, females, ovigerous females and juveniles was significantly higher at the reflective beach population, which also presented higher growth rates in size and weight with respect to the dissipative beach population. No significant differences in weight-at-length were found between beaches. Among the compared parameters, only the lower natural mortality rates at the dissipative beach gave support for the HHH. The results were not consistent with a previous analysis of Excirolana braziliensis along Pan-American beaches, which showed that this isopod occurs almost invariably in fine sands of tropical and temperate beaches. The results give strong support to recent findings that show that in macrofauna species capable of sustaining large populations across a wide spectrum of physical conditions, such as Excirolana braziliensis, beach morphodynamics should not be considered the primary factor affecting abundance and life history traits. Instead, our results reinforce the view that sandy beach populations are controlled by the intertwined forces of biotic and abiotic factors operating together.

A new species of leptostracan (Crustacea: Phyllocarida: Leptostraca) belonging to the genus Nebalia, N. troncosoi sp. nov., is described from specimens collected off the Galician coast (Iberian Peninsula, north-east Atlantic). The new species is relatively common in sandy bottoms. It is characterized by having a long rostrum, an eye with small distal lobes, an antennular flagellum with up to seven articles, the exopod of the second maxilla longer than the first article of the endopod, and acute denticles along the posterior dorsal border of pleonites 6–7.

A new species of the hermit crab genus Pagurus (Crustacea: Anomura: Paguridae) is described from Brazil. This is the first new species described in 30 years, with morphological characteristics of the exilis group.

A new species of the copepod genus Tortanus (Atortus) (Copepoda: Calanoida), T. (A.) insularis, is described from the coastal region of Rodrigues Island, Mauritius, an isolated island in the south-western Indian Ocean. This new species can be assigned to an Indian faunal element, the recticauda species group, in the Indo-West Pacific recticauda species complex. It exhibits the closest relationship to T. (A.) recticauda recorded from the southern Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, rather than the closer distributed T. (A.) capensis, recorded from off South Africa.

This study presents electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) observations on the putative settlement receptors of the fourth antennulary segments. The TEM data from all nine setae are from the outer dendritic segment. Eight of them have morphological characteristics, indicating bimodal sensory properties while one seta (sE) is presumed to be a unimodal mechanoreceptor. We suggest that setae A and B are stimulated by the water flow, seta D is olfactory, seta E detects the topography of the substratum by touch, and the subterminal setae are touch chemoreceptors. No function is suggested for seta C.

A number of mangrove systems with associated tidal flats occur in Coiba Island, located off the Pacific coast of Panama, two of which were selected for the present study: Santa Cruz and El Gambute. Three transects were selected on each tidal flat and three sampling sites were arranged along each one: lower, middle and upper intertidal. During 1997, two samplings were carried out at each site, in February and November. The results of the faunistic studies revealed the presence of ten species of Orbiniidae, two of which belonged to the genus Leodamas. Leodamas minutus sp. nov. is easily distinguished from all other species within the genus by having a cylindrical thorax composed of 13 chaetigers, the first three chaetigers without notopodial lobes, thoracic neuropodia without postchaetal process, and abdominal neuropodia, short, bilobed and with protruding acicula. Leodamas platythoracicus sp. nov. can be recognized by its thorax, distinctly flattened in the posterior half and consisting of about 19 chaetigers, by its thoracic neuropodia, with many spines arranged in one or two rows and few, if any, slender capillaries, and by the shape of its abdominal neuropodia, which are long and subterminally notched and bear a distal process.

The spionid polychaete Dipolydora armata, a borer in calcareous substrata, is recorded for the first time from Belize, Brazil, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Specimens from these and other localities, as well as the type material of Polydora armata from Madeira Island and Polydora rogeri from the Mediterranean were examined and all the specimens were considered to be conspecific. Dipolydora armata is up to 8 mm long (usually 2–3 mm), with up to 45 segments (usually 25–35 segments), an incised prostomium, caruncle until the end of segment 2, up to 10 pairs of branchiae from segment 7, up to 20 awl-like modified spines per notopodium in up to 15 posterior segments, bilobed or cup-shaped pygidium, hooded hooks from segment 7 accompanied by capillaries throughout the body, major falcate spines of segment 5 with a large lateral tooth and an apical structure covered by fine bristles and appearing as a cowling or third tooth on the convex side of the main fang.  The life history of the species includes a period of asexual reproduction by architomy beginning soon after settlement, then sexual maturation and continuous breeding within an extended period with production of lecithotrophic larvae developing entirely inside egg capsules. Once mature, individuals probably reproduce only sexually and do not undergo additional architomic divisions.  Asexual reproduction results in high morphological variability of adult individuals, particularly in number, size, and arrangement of awl-like spines in notopodia. Polydora rogeri is placed into synonymy of D. armata. The original interpretation of the relationship between the polychaetes and the excavating sponge Cliona viridis as mutualistic symbiosis is discussed. Dipolydora armata is considered to be a widespread non-specialized borer perforating various calcareous substrata.

Three species of Plakortis and one of Plakinastrella (Demospongiae: Homosclerophorida) collected mostly at oceanic islands off north-eastern Brazil (Atol das Rocas, Fernando de Noronha and São Pedro e São Paulo Archipelago) are described, three of which are new to science: Plakortis angulospiculatus, P. insularis sp. nov., P. microrhabdifera sp. nov, and Plakinastrella microspiculifera sp. nov. External morphological characters such as colour, oscules, and consistency are sufficient to discriminate all the four species in the field, except Plakortis angulospiculatus from P. microrhabdifera. Internal features such as skeletal arrangement, shape and size of diods, and presence of microrhabds and calthrops are also important taxonomic characters for western Atlantic Plakortis and Plakinastrella. We consider as valid only five species of Plakortis in the western Atlantic: the three species described here plus P. halichondrioides and P. zyggompha. All these species except P. zyggompha have been recorded from Brazil. Plakinastrella has now two species in the western Atlantic, P. onkodes and P. microspiculifera sp. nov. The generic distinction between Plakortis and Plakinastrella is tenuous, based only on the presence of spicule size-classes and of deformed vs normal calthrops, and both genera need detailed revision.