Of the 18th Century, a 19th century critic remarked that it mated decadence with splendor — a poetically conceived evaluation, but one which introduces more than aesthetic judgment. From the time of Sylvester Baxter's pioneer appreciation of art and architecture in colonial Mexico, there have been a great variety of travellers and scholars who have attempted to clarify the stylistic problems of the period. It would be impossible to give any just measure of credit to all those who have contributed; much of the most meaningful interpretation of this period, however, must be based on the brilliant work of the late Manuel Tous-saint and the investigadores of the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas at the University of Mexico.

La actual Constitución de México establece un régimen democrático para regular la vida de los 32 millones de habitantes de la nación que viven en una área de 2 millones de kilómetros cuadrados, o sea approximadamente una cuarta parte del territorio continental de Estados Unidos. Redactada y promulgada en 1917, la Constitución establece las aspiraciones legítimas de su pueblo, originadas en el profundo movimiento social, político y económico conocido como la Revolución Mexicana — el primero de los múltiples movimientos similares que en el siglo XX se han presentado en diversas partes del mundo — iniciado en 1910 contra la dictadura que gobernó al país durante 30 años.

O papel representado pelo muar, na economía nacional, através da historia, foi de marcada importancia. Sem a sua contribuicáo, tendo em vista, principalmente, a reconhecida capacidade que possui, de transportar cargas diversas a distancias excepcionalmente grandes, muito do que foi alcancado, na criacáo de riquezas, jamais teria sido possível obter. Durante mais de século e meio, desde o descobrimento das minas auríferas, ao entardecer do século XVII, até a alvorada da era ferroviaria, em 1867, sua colaboracáo foi de marcante relêvo.

De início, atendeu ao abastecimento dos varios pontos de mineracáo no territorio nacional, suprindo-os de víveres e mercadorias de consumo, e o que mais necessário fósse. Depois, propiciou o desenvolvimento da producáo acucareira paulista, nao apenas para o abastecimento regular dos sertóes brasileiros, mas igualmente para a exportacáo, conduzindo-a ao porto de Santos.

Perhaps the most interesting, and certainly the most complicated, of the many activities relating to Brazilian iron ore development are those associated with the Rio Doce Valley. This valley, which lies about 225 miles north of Rio de Janeiro, is a natural corridor from the sea to the rich Itabira ore fields in the state of Minas Gerais. Its value as a possible outlet for Itabira ore was noted as early as the first quarter of the nineteenth century by such figures as Cámara Bittencourt, Intendente General of the Diamantina district and Baron Wiihelm von Eschwege, a minerologist employed by the Portuguese government.

One curious and distinctive development of early ecclesiastic architecture in Mexico is the open chapel. The three great monastic orders which early in the sixteenth century divided up Mexico for its spiritual welfare were amazingly successful. The construction of churches, rapid though it was, failed to keep pace with the thousands of converts who thronged to the services and filled the existing buildings to overflowing. Realizing that their Indian followers must have frequent opportunities for attending mass, the monks conceived the idea of erecting small chapels, large enough to shelter the altar and so constructed as to render it visible to great numbers of Indians outside. As the years passed, great cathedrals and many parish churches arose until there were more than enough to serve the people. The open chapels were gradually abandoned or enclosed and dedicated to special uses. Many have disappeared but those which remain provide an interesting commentary upon early colonial religious life in Mexico.

That indigenismo — in the sense of a sympathetic awareness of the Indian by social scientist, essayist, and creative writer – came into full flower in the two decades following the Mexican Revolution is amply confirmed by the most cursory survey of Mexican intellectual and artistic activity of this period. Interest in the Indian and in his halfbrother, the mestizo, is well-attested by the activities of José Vasconcelos as Minister of Education during the early twenties; by the appearance of Vasconcelos’ popular essays, La raza cósmica (1925) and Indoiogía (1927); by the anthropological and ethnological investigations of Manuel Gamio and Alfonso Caso, by the strikingly nativist orientation of the graphic arts; and finally, by the creation of the Indianist novel in the thirties.

En octobre 1954, je fus invité à prendre part, en compagnie d'éminentes personnalités, venues de tous les points de 1'horizon intellectuel, aux manifestations organisées dans la Ville de New-York pour célébrer le bicentenaire de la fondation de Columbia University. Je considérai cette invitation comme un honneur qui s'adressait non à ma personne mais à mon pays tout entier. Et c'est, par conséquent, au nom de la République d'Haiti que j'apportai l'hommage de notre commune admiration à l'illustre Institution qui, au cours de ses deux siècles d'existence, a si puissamment contribué au progrès matériel et spirituel de l'homme moderne par son incessante activité dans tous les domaines de la Connaissance.

El tema de este ensayo que a primera vista podría parecer carente de interés general, entra, sin embargo, dentro de una órbita cultural sudamericana común, pues la evolución del arte en nuestro hemisferio latino es muy parecida en todos los países que lo integran. Todo el arte sudamericano se encuentra todavía en formación y únicamente Méjico — país que cuenta con una gran tradición indígena-colonial — nos ofrece, y es la primera y la única entre las naciones de América Latina — un panorama artístico original basado en la obra de sus muralistas. Todas las demás, inclusive la Argentina, aún tienen sus posibilidades creativas en gestación. Podemos afirmar sin temor que todo el arte sudamericano se está formando; hasta ahora sólo poseemos obras de arte creadas por las culturas indígenas y por las de la época colonial, época en la que es necesario reconocer que la potencia colonizadora — España — poco se ocupó de las manifestaciones artísticas en general. Salvo casos especiales y en cierto sentido aislados, como por ejemplo la reconstrucción de La Habana, destruida por los ingleses en el siglo XVIII, el gobierno metropolitano descuidó el mejoramiento arquitectónico de sus colonias.

Tout pays pose un certain nombre de problèmes de base. Us se rammènent à quatre groupes principaux: Politique, Administratif, Social et Economique.

Quelle est la position d'Haiti, face à ees problèmes?

Depuis 1804, et bien avant, nous nous sommes toujours oceupés de politique, ou de ce que nous appelons tel. S'applique plus adéquatement a nous, Haitiens, ce mot d'Aristotle: “L'homme est un animal politique.”

Le politique est tout ce qui concerne l'organisation de 1'Etat, l'exercice de ses pouvoirs, des droits et des obligations des citoyens pour la raison qu'iis vivent en groupes, sous une autorité donée. Le politique peut se démembrer et s'appliquer à différentes fins.

The Puerto Rico of the 1830's was one of the two remaining jewels in the Spanish Imperial Crown in America. The tenor of its insular way had not been unaffected by the revolutions that in a half century had brought about the political separation of the Old World and the New. The Reformismo Ilustrado of the Bourbons which was begun in the previous century had left its mark on the island; and if insularity had more than literal connotations when applied to Puerto Rico, it was nevertheless true that increased trade with the United States was creating an economic bond foreshadowing the political absorption of 1898.

Rapid growth in output of real goods and services and consequent improvement in material standards of living are the pre-eminent goals of economic policy in Latin America. Evidence in support of this conclusion is so commonplace that it need scarcely be cited. It is, however, interesting and informative to look at the reasons why Latin America so ardently desires growth, at her prospects for actual attainment of continual and substantial increases in real output per capital, and at some of the problems which she may encounter along the way. It is the purpose of this paper to summarize and comment upon some of what appear to be the chief motivations to economic development and to juxtapose some of the advantages and obstacles which Latin America is likely to face in her drive for economic growth.

As spring came to Boston and success to William Hickling Prescott in 1838, the jubilant author of The History of Ferdinand and Isabella settled on another Spanish theme, the conquests of Mexico and Peru, and quickly launched his second historical excursion. Never one to frequent archives in person, Prescott reactivated established scholarly channels when he informed London bookdealer Rich and Madrid-based diplomat Middleton of his new needs. In addition, one Spanish friend won by his first work, Angel Calderón de la Barca, helped to introduce Prescott to Spain's most eminent historian, Fernández de Navarrete. In short order the corps of cooperative men that included historians, book-dealers, diplomats, and copyists began to shuttle toward Boston thousands of pages of material relevant to the historian's new. project.

La revolución industrial que caracterizó la segunda mitad del Siglo XIX y que se ha intensificado en los años que han transcurrido del presente Siglo, ha traído como consecuencia un natural despertar de la conciencia social hacia las duras realidades del trabajador asalariado y se ha pronunciado en legislaciones más o menos avanzadas para proteger a dicho trabajador.

Todos los países del mundo occidental, cual más cual menos, han dictado códigos y leyes laborales y de seguridad social, con el propósito de defender al trabajador industrial frente a los intereses de la industria, permitiéndole no solamente equilibrar un tanto su posición en las negociaciones de los contratos colectivos de trabajo, mediante la organización de sindicatos y uniones, sino garantizándole salarios mínimos, la limitación de horas de trabajo, seguros de enfermedad, invalidez y fallecimiento, etc. Estas legislaciones, unas con visión de la realidad y otras un tanto exageradas con relación al medio en que deben aplicarse, tienen en común la profunda preocupación del Estado y de la sociedad en general, de aproximarse en la medida de lo posible a una situación de justicia social que permita el desenvolvimiento de la clase trabajadora hacia niveles humanos y dignos.

In attempting to define the parameters of Haitian society, three basic status pyramids will be employed, economic, social-occupational, and political. In each case, an effort will be made to distinguish between caste (inherited) and class (personally-achieved distinction) elements which seem to be present. These criteria will then be placed in comparison or opposition to the acid test of individual recognition of status and solidarity toward the class with which Haitians identify themselves.

The absolute upper and lower limits of class in Haiti are not difficult to distinguish by economic or socio-occupational standards, and with a few notable exceptions there is a high degree of political correlation in that both the upper and lower groups participate very little in the political mechanism. Thus whereas these two groups are at opposite poles in the first two pyramids, they are essentially undistinguishable in the third.

El propósito del presente artículo es principalmente el de sugerir, en lineas generales, la naturaleza de algunos de los problemas de mayor vigencia dentro del cuadro actual de la política latinoamericana. Ante la imposibilidad de ofrecer en este espacio una visión completa de la escena política, nos hemos limitado al análisis de cuatro tendencias que, según impresiones recogidas en dos viajes recientes por nuestro continente, constituyen, en nuestra opinión, factores primordiales de la actividad política en estos países.

La primera de estas tendencias, que el extranjero percibe de inmediato, es la ola creciente de sentimiento anti-norteamericano. Aunque este factor no haya alcanzado todavía proporciones desmedidas, debe constituir motivo de seria preocupación a todos los estudiosos de la realidad latinoamericana.

The following study was prepared with the purpose in mind of exposing and clearing up some frequent confusion and misconceptions existing among Latin American experts about fundamental concepts of growth, standards of living, future potentialities, accumulated wealth, as well as inflationary problems in connection with the area's economic development.

There seems to exist some evidence that in the past few years too much has been written and said about Latin American economic development without the benefit of statistical data. Frequently the latter — when used at all — have been misinterpreted and unpleasant data were omitted with a consequent distortion of the truth. Writers in other disciplines have then built on these findings and further distortions of the Latin American picture have resulted. It also has become very fashionable to theorize and perhaps in that process to make up some facts that will fit the theory to be developed, generally the pet project of the investigator.

Por los años de 1883 decíase en La Verdad de Bogotá con referencia a Bolívar: “Acaso el distintivo más característico de la grandeza de los hombres, es la variedad de las facultades que constituyen su genio. De esta variedad provienen principalmente sus más insignes cualidades, así como sus defectos; porque de la combinación de facultades diversas, que todo lo abarcan, resultan de ordinario, tanto en la mente misma y en el temperamento como en el carácter, contrastes que, considerados desde un punto de vista, son armonías, y desde otro, son disonancias y aún contradicciones.”

La Isla de Cuba, abandonada después de la fundación de sus primeras poblaciones, inicia débilmente su cultura media con el establecimiento en 1698, del Colegio Seminario de San Carlos y San Ambrosio, cuyas proyecciones no se hacen notar hasta mediados del siglo XVIII. Es en este siglo, año de 1721, cuando una bula de Inocencio XIII autoriza la creación de la Universidad de la Habana, normada por la de Santo Domingo, y cuyos primeros Estatutos fueron aprobados por Real Cédula de 27 de julio de 1734, encomendándose su dirección a los padres de la Orden de Predicadores.