The current study aimed to select the strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from forage cactus plants and silage and assess their effects on silage fermentation and aerobic stability. Forty wild isolates from plant and cactus silage, classified as LAB, were evaluated for metabolite production and identified by 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing. These wild isolates were identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, Weissella cibaria, Weissella confusa and Weissella paramesenteroides and the LAB populations differed among the silage. The use of microbial inoculants did not influence gas or effluent losses in forage cactus silage. The silage inoculated with the microbial strain GP15 showed the highest number of LAB populations. The amounts of water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) and ammonia nitrogen differed among the silage. The silage inoculated with the GP1 strain presented the highest WSC. Populations of enterobacteria and yeasts and moulds were below the minimum detection limit (<2.0 log cfu/g silage) in all the silage studied. The predominant action of inoculants was to maximize dry matter recovery of the silage, which could be the criterion adopted to select the strains of LAB for use as inoculants in Opuntia silage.

Cultivar mixtures of winter barley and spring barley, together with their component monocultures, were grown in field trials to assess the effect of cultivar combinations on both straw and grain yield. The overall grain yields for all trials were significantly higher for the cultivar mixtures than for the corresponding component monocultures. Also, significant decreases in rhynchosporium disease severity for cultivar mixtures were recorded for most non-fungicide treatments. The size of these responses was often significantly correlated with the component number of the mixtures. The amount of straw produced in mixtures was sometimes changed significantly, but not always in a positive direction and it was only correlated with increasing mixture component number in two environments. No correlation of straw yield potential of cultivars with performance in mixtures was found. Cultivar × cultivar mixture × environment interactions appeared to affect the relative yield of grain and straw differentially and therefore it was not possible to predict the effect of mixtures on the harvest index.

Grafting of fresh cuttings using drought-susceptible and low-yielding clones as scions on drought-tolerant clones as rootstocks offers the possibility of raising composite plants with improved productivity and drought tolerance. Hence, the study was aimed to widen the choice of compatible composites and to delineate the underlying factors responsible for productivity and drought tolerance in grafted plants. One year-old composite plants of TRF-1, TRF-2 and UPASI-28 cleft-grafted on the rootstocks of UPASI-2, UPASI-9, ATK-1 and TRI-2025 were field planted along with their respective controls and evaluated. The results indicated that productivity and drought tolerance of scion clones varied significantly with the rootstocks used. Significant increases in yield and yield components were noted in the following graft combinations compared with their corresponding self-rooted scion clones: TRF-1 grafted on UPASI-9 and ATK-1, TRF-2 grafted on all four rootstocks, and UPASI-28 grafted on UPASI-9, TRI-2025 and UPASI-2. The findings clearly emphasize the scion–rootstock interaction as the critical determinant of productivity in grafted plants compared with vigour, drought tolerance and yield potential of scion and rootstock clones. Further, high-yielding capacity of grafts over the ungrafted scions and rootstocks was largely dependent on the yield potential of the scion clone and the degree of scion–rootstock compatibility. Higher field survival and enhanced yield observed during the drought period in the compatible grafts demonstrated their better drought tolerance compared with their respective self-rooted scions.

Crop rotation is a non-chemical strategy adopted by farmers to manage weeds. However, not all crops in a rotation are equally profitable. Thus, there is potentially a trade-off between the costs and benefits of this strategy. The objective of the current study is to quantify this trade-off for the rotational control of an important weed (Alopecurus myosuroides). Data from 745 farms were used to parameterize a farm-level mixed-integer goal-programming model of the economics of spring cropping for weed control in UK agriculture. On average, the short-term loss of profit from spring cropping is greater than the benefits in terms of reduced herbicide usage and yield increases. These costs are greater when weed densities are low, so that spring cropping is an expensive strategy in the early stages of an infestation. However, there is a great deal of farm-to-farm variation: factors such as soil type and farm size are important and the current study highlights that economic modelling at the farm level is important in enabling farmers to make informed decisions. In general, however, if spring cropping is to be a successful strategy then the benefits to farmers will be in terms of long-term reductions in weed densities, but this will be at the expense of short-term profitability.

The climate of north-western Spain, with high temperatures and relative humidity during the grapevine vegetative cycle, can especially favour the development of fungal diseases in vineyards. One of the most important diseases is downy mildew, caused by the fungus Plasmopara viticola. The aim of the current study is to propose a system containing phenological data, biological sensors of pathogen indicator and the agrometeorological Goidanich Index in order to optimize the application of downy mildew fungicide treatments. The study was conducted in a vineyard of the ‘Ribeiro’ Designation of Origin region from 2005 to 2016 during the Vitis vegetative period. Aerobiological sampling was performed using a LANZONI VPPS-2000 volumetric trap. The highest number of infection cycles was recorded during the 2009 harvest, with a total of 16 cycles. Years with fewer infection cycles were 2008, 2011 and 2012 (13 cycles). Primary infections were produced during the third fortnight of April and a high amount of secondary infection cycles were detected by the Goidanich algorithm during the fruit development and berry ripening stages. The best estimators of the P. viticola spore concentrations were the fungus spore levels during the previous day, the average temperature 5 days before and rainfall 2 days before. The regression equation obtained accounted for the 95.9% of the spore concentration variation. The combination of the Goidanich index and biological sensors provides a valuable tool to establish an accurate, modern, integrated downy mildew pest-management strategy.

The current study was conducted in 2013 to identify the seeds of three species of Amaranthus, Amaranthus viridis L., Amaranthus retroflexus L. and Amaranthus albus L., by using the artificial neural network (ANN) and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) methods. To begin with, photographs were taken of the seeds and 13 morphological characteristics of each seed extracted as predictor variables. Backward regression was used to find the most influential variables and seven variables were derived. Thus, predictor variables were divided into two sets of 13 and seven morphological characteristics. The results showed that the recognition accuracy of the ANN made using 13 and seven predictor variables was 81.1 and 80.3%, respectively. Meanwhile, recognition accuracy of the CDA using the seven and 13 predictor variables was 74.0 and 75.7%, respectively. Therefore, in comparison to CDA, ANN showed higher identification accuracy; however, the difference was not statistically significant. Identification accuracy for A. retroflexus was higher using the CDA method than ANN, while the ANN method had higher recognition accuracy for A. viridis than CDA. In addition, use of 13 predictor variables yielded a greater identification accuracy than seven. The results of the current study showed that using seed morphological characteristics extracted by computer vision could be effective for reliable identification of the similar seeds of Amaranthus species.

Despite the global importance of Capsicum species, there is limited information on the indigenous endomycorrhizal fungal association in this crop. Therefore, the diversity and colonization patterns of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in roots of Naga King chilli (Capsicum chinense) were assessed during pre-flowering, flowering and fruit ripening growth stages under a sub-tropical shifting cultivation system of North Eastern India. All the roots examined had AMF colonization and the presence of Paris-type arbuscular mycorrhizal morphology is reported for the first time in C. chinense. A total of 11 AMF spore morphotypes were isolated from both field and trap culture soils. Maximum AMF spore density and root colonization were recorded during the pre-flowering and flowering stages, respectively. The influence of Funneliformis geosporum, individually or in combination with Pseudomonas fluorescens and Azotobacter chroococcum, on growth and yield of C. chinense, was evaluated in a pot experiment using sterilized and non-sterilized soils. The application of AMF and P. fluorescens to sterilized soil significantly increased the growth, flower and fruit production, and nutrient content of C. chinense. The highest growth rates and yields of C. chinense in non-sterilized soils were achieved when AMF was combined with both P. fluorescens and A. chroococcum. The results of the current study indicate the value of applying microorganisms to improve plant growth and performance in chillies. One of the mechanisms for this could be the facilitated assimilation of nutrients promoted by AMF and bacterial bioinoculants.

Early-maturing provitamin A (PVA) quality protein maize (QPM) hybrids with combined drought and low soil nitrogen (low-N) tolerance are needed to address malnutrition and food security problems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The current study's objectives were to (i) examine combining ability of selected early maturing PVA-QPM inbreds for grain yield and other agronomic traits under drought, low-N, optimal environments and across environments, (ii) determine gene action conditioning PVA accumulation under optimal environments, (iii) classify inbreds into heterotic groups and identify testers and (iv) assess yield and stability of hybrids across environments. Ninety-six hybrids generated from 24 inbred lines using the North Carolina Design II together with four commercial hybrid controls were evaluated under drought, low-N and optimal environments in Nigeria in 2016 and 2017. Fifty-four selected hybrids were assayed for PVA carotenoid and tryptophan content. Additive genetic effects were greater than non-additive effects for grain yield and most agronomic traits under each and across environments. The gene action conditioning accumulation of PVA carotenoids under optimal growing conditions followed a pattern similar to that of grain yield and other yield-related traits. The inbred lines were categorized into four heterotic groups consistent with the pedigree records and with TZEIORQ 29 identified as the best male and female tester for heterotic group IV. No tester was found for the other groups. Hybrid TZEIORQ 24 × TZEIORQ 41 was the highest yielding and most stable across environments and should be further tested for consistent performance for commercialization in SSA.

Light competition increases and plants’ growth pattern change to optimize light utilization when the leaf area index increases. It has been previously shown that using 95% canopy light interception (LI) as a grazing frequency criterion resulted in a greater proportion of leaves and a lower proportion of stem. The objective of the study was to characterize the forage production, morphological composition and nutritive value of Panicum maximum cv Mombaça. The experiment was carried out during summer, autumn–winter and spring. Treatments corresponded to combinations of two pre-grazing conditions (95% and maximum LI at pre-grazing; LI95% and LIMax, respectively) and two post-grazing heights (PGHs; 30 and 50 cm). The statistical design was a randomized complete block, with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Swards managed with LI95% had greater proportions of leaves and lower proportions of stems compared to LIMax. Leaf proportion was lower during autumn–winter compared to summer and spring. The LI95% had greater crude protein (CP) and digestibility (IVOMD), and lower acid detergent fibre (ADF) concentrations than LIMax. The 50 cm PGH pastures had greater CP content and IVOMD, and lower ADF content than 30 cm PGH pastures. Lower IVOMD was observed during autumn–winter than summer and spring. The variability observed on morphological characteristics was primarily associated with seasonality, whilst the nutritive value was primarily affected by grazing management. The pre-grazing target of LI95% combined with 50 cm PGH was the combination that resulted in an increased proportion of leaves, decreased stems in basal stratum and the greatest nutritive value of the produced forage.

Macro-organisms contribute significantly to soil fertility improvement. The influence of conservation agriculture (CA) in southern Africa on their populations has not yet been fully understood. Thus, the objective of the current study was to evaluate the effects of CA and conventional tillage on below ground biological activity in a CA long-term trial in Monze, Zambia from 2011 to 2013. The study had ten treatments which differed by tillage systems (conventional ploughing, planting basins and direct seeding) and crop diversification intensity (sole cropping, 2- or 3-year crop rotations) involving maize, cotton and sunn hemp. These factors were combined to create rotation-tillage (RotTill) treatments. Sampling of macrofauna was done once per year using a metal frame measuring 0.25 m2, hand-sorted to 30-cm depth. RotTill treatments had a significant effect on earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris), termites (Coptotermes formosanus), dung beetles (Scarabaeus viettei) and centipedes (Lithobius forficatus). Earthworms and termites were more abundant in CA treatments than in conventionally ploughed (CP) treatments. Biota diversity was generally higher in CA treatments than in CP controls. Conventional mouldboard ploughing generally reduced macrofauna, thus affecting biological soil fertility and the beneficial effect of the interactions of these organisms with the soil. CA treatments had the highest maize grain yields throughout the study period. Based on the results, reduced tillage systems and crop rotations increase biological activity shown by increased densities of termites and earthworms.

Although numerous studies have investigated the individual effects of salinity, irrigation and fertilization on soil microbial communities, relatively less attention has been paid to their combined influences, especially using molecular techniques. Based on the field of orthogonal designed test and deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing technology, the effects of saline water irrigation amount, salinity level of irrigation water and nitrogen (N) fertilizer rate on soil bacterial community structure were investigated. The results showed that the irrigation amount was the most dominant factor in determining the bacterial richness and diversity, followed by the irrigation water salinity and N fertilizer rate. The values of Chao1 estimator, abundance-based coverage estimator and Shannon indices decreased with an increase in irrigation amount while increased and then decreased with an increase in irrigation water salinity and N fertilizer rate. The highest soil bacterial richness and diversity were obtained under the least irrigation amount (25 mm), medium irrigation water salinity (4.75 dS/m) and medium N fertilizer rate (350 kg/ha). However, different bacterial phyla were found to respond distinctively to these three factors: irrigation amount significantly affected the relative abundances of Proteobacteria and Chloroflexi; irrigation water salinity mostly affected the members of Actinobacteria, Gemmatimonadetes and Acidobacteria; and N fertilizer rate mainly influenced the Bacteroidetes' abundance. The results presented here revealed that the assessment of soil microbial processes under combined irrigation and fertilization treatments needed to be more careful as more variable consequences would be established by comparing with the influences based on an individual factor, such as irrigation amount or N fertilizer rate.

A field experiment was conducted to study the long-term effects of nutrient management practices on micronutrient concentrations in soil and their uptake by crops under a long-term rice–wheat cropping system. The treatments comprised different combinations of N, P, K, Zn and farm yard manure (FYM), used as nutrient management practices. After 25 years of continuous cropping, the higher grain yields and uptake of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were obtained when FYM was applied along with mineral sources of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) when compared to mineral sources of NPK alone. The residual effect of FYM, applied to rice, on the yield of subsequent wheat was significant. The application of mineral NPK with FYM recorded higher diethylene triamine penta acetic acid extracted (DTPA)-Fe, Mn and Cu concentrations in the soil compared to any other treatment. The plots with Zn application showed higher DTPA-Zn concentration in the soil compared to any other treatments. The available Fe, Mn and Cu in the soil were higher than their critical limits and the soil was low in Zn where inorganic fertilizers were applied alone (without Zn). Integrated application of mineral NPK and FYM to the rice crop and mineral NPK to wheat was found to be the best nutrient management practice in producing higher yields of rice and wheat and improve long-term soil micronutrient concentrations.

Oilseed rape seed yield has increased in the last 40 years in most countries, but this yield gain has not been accompanied by greater yield stability. The current study aimed to quantify the genotype by environment (G × E) interaction on oilseed rape yield, identify genotypes with broad adaptability and the main environmental drivers related to seed yield. A weighted two-stage mixed-model analysis was applied to official multi-environment trials of nine spring genotypes (G), in three locations (L) during 6 years (Y) on central and southern Argentine Pampas under rainfed conditions. Best linear unbiased prediction of seed yield ranged from 0.37 to 3.73 kg/ha. Fixed effect L × Y was highly significant and G variability was estimated as 130 kg/ha of standard deviation. Contrasting genotypes were identified by Shukla's stability index and two of those showed the best yield performance in the wettest year. Factor analysis explained 0.75 of total variation and discriminated genotypes with broad and specific adaptability, as well as combined environments according to the similarities in seed yield of the evaluated genotypes. Environmental loadings of Factor 2 were linearly associated with cumulative rainfall in the post-flowering period (up to 230 mm). It is concluded that (i) a significant G × L × Y interaction underlies the high variability of seed yield, (ii) two genotypes (G6 and G7) with high yield stability were identified, and (iii) G × E effects are associated with post-flowering rainfall.

Amendment of recalcitrant organic materials with high carbon/nitrogen (C/N)-ratio may improve and maintain soil labile C for a longer period, thus enhancing the productivity of soils with low fertility; however, immobilization of N may affect the plant growth negatively. To reduce the negative impacts, recalcitrant organic materials can be pre-incubated with N-rich sources or applied in combination with fertilizers. The current study evaluated sawdust biochar (BC) and pre-incubated cattle manure–sawdust mixture (CS) amendments with synthetic fertilizers in improving soil carbon pool, soil fertility and maize (Zea mays L.) yield on a tropical Alfisol. Four treatments: control, site-specific fertilizer (SSF), site-specific fertilizer with sawdust biochar (BC + SSF) or pre-incubated cattle manure-sawdust mixture (CS + SSF), were evaluated for two seasons with maize. The residual effect was evaluated in the third season. During the year of active C application, lability index, C management index and potentially mineralizable N were significantly greater in CS + SSF than BC + SSF treatment. However, the same indices measured in the third season with no further application of amendments were significantly greater in BC + SSF than in CS + SSF treatment, indicating an increase in more recalcitrant C pool with BC amendment. Application of organic amendments improved soil fertility parameters compared with the application of fertilizer alone. Maize yield was significantly increased by fertilizer, with or without organic amendments; with significantly greater yield in BC + SSF than other treatments. Results suggest that soil amendment with BC had greater potential to improve the soil carbon pool and maintain labile carbon for a longer period than a pre-incubated CS.

Many factors, including pathogens, environmental change and breeding techniques, affect honeybee immunity/resistance, so substances and natural supplements that enhance it are desired. To eliminate the impact of unknown external factors, in 2016 a cage experiment was conducted under constant laboratory conditions (35 °C, 65% relative humidity). Bees in the control group were fed with sugar dissolved in water at ratio 1:1 ad libitum with no additives, while the other group was fed with sugar syrup (1:1) supplemented with piperine (3 µg/ml) ad libitum. The piperine-treated workers lived 9 days longer compared to the control group. In the piperine-consuming group, protein concentration and the activities of antioxidative enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), were higher than in the control group. The activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were also higher in the piperine-treated group. Neutral and acidic proteases inhibitors, as well as neutral protease activities, were higher in the haemolymph of the piperine-treated workers than in untreated bees. Acidic protease activities in the haemolymph were higher in untreated workers only on days 18 and 32. Alkaline protease activities in the control bees were higher from day 10. From 10 days old, the total antioxidant capacity level was significantly higher in the haemolymph of piperine-treated workers. Piperine decreased DNA methylation levels significantly in the older bees. The compound could have the potential to be a natural diet supplement increasing apian resistance to stress factors.

Protein turnover is an energy-consuming process that is essential for ensuring the maintenance of living organisms. Gold standard methods for whole-body protein turnover (WBPT) measurement have inherent drawbacks precluding their generalization for large farm animals and use during long periods. Here, we proposed a non-invasive proxy for the WBPT over a long period of time and in a large number of beef cattle. The proxy is based on the rate at which urine-N and plasma proteins are progressively depleted in terms of 15N after a slight decrease in the isotopic N composition of the diet (i.e. diet switch). We aimed to test the ability of this proxy to adequately discriminate the WBPT of 36 growing-fattening young bulls assigned to different dietary treatments known to impact the WBPT rate, with different protein contents (normal v. high) and amino acid profiles (balanced v. unbalanced in methionine). The 15N depletion rate found in plasma proteins represented their fractional synthesis rate, whereas the slow depletion rate found in urine was interpreted as a proxy of the WBPT. The proxy tested in urine suggested different WBPT values between the normal- and high-protein diets but not between the balanced and unbalanced methionine diets. In contrast, the proxy tested in plasma indicated that both dietary conditions affected the fractional synthesis rate of plasma proteins. We considered that the rate at which urine is progressively 15N-depleted following an isotopic diet switch could be proposed as a non-invasive proxy of the WBPT rate in large farm animals.

The importance of spring grass in the diet of early lactation dairy cows has been widely acknowledged. Numerous studies completed on a plot/paddock basis have identified methods of increasing herbage availability in spring, but little focus was placed on how this impacts animal production. The aim of the current study was to investigate the impact of opening farm cover (OFC; grass availability on farm at turnout in spring; 1036 (high), 748 (medium) and 544 (low) kg DM/ha) and spring rotation length (fast – 56 days and normal – 63 days) on animal performance in early lactation and herbage production and quality. Spring rotation length had little effect on animal performance, herbage variables or sward composition. High OFC increased pre-grazing herbage mass, allowing for increased daily herbage allowance (DHA) compared to medium and low OFC. There was a reduced proportion of leaf in the sward of the high OFC compared to the low OFC, resulting in lower organic matter digestibility. Despite the reduction in sward quality observed as a consequence of achieving high OFC in spring, the greater DHA available to animals increased milk production (+1.4 kg milk/cow/day). Additionally, animals grazing a medium or low OFC had a greater requirement for silage supplementation in spring (+1.3 kg DM/cow/day). The benefits of the higher DHA highlighted in the current study suggest that autumn grazing management must be adapted to increase herbage availability in spring. However, the benefits observed in milk production did not persist beyond the first grazing rotation.

Field experiments were carried out in order to investigate if brown manuring (BM) using Sesbania plants can be used to control weeds in maize, especially Cyperus rotundus (Experiment I), and further to optimize the BM technology through appropriate Sesbania seed rate (S), 2,4-D application time (T) and dose (D) (Experiment II). Each BM treatment received a pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i./ha. Experiment I showed that the BM practice using 15 kg/ha Sesbania seed and 2,4-D 0.50 kg a.i./ha applied at 25 DAS led to better control of weeds, especially C. rotundus and higher maize grain yield. Further optimization studies (Experiment II) indicated that among the factors S, T and D, the BM combination S~25 kg/ha, D~0.50 kg a.i./ha and T~25 DAS (i.e. S25T25D0.50) resulted in lowest weed density (3.1/m2) and dry weight (3.8 g/m2) and highest weed control index (89.2%) at 60 days after sowing (DAS) which was at par with another BM practice S15T25D0.50. However, the later BM combination led to significantly higher maize productivity (5.25 t/ha) and profitability (net returns (NR) $878/ha), which were 103 and 280% higher, respectively, than the weedy check (WC). The Sesbania seed rate S~15 kg/ha gave 7% higher maize grain yield and 12% higher NR than its corresponding level S~25 kg/ha. Therefore, Sesbania BM with 15 kg seeds/ha and 2,4-D at 0.50 kg a.i/ha applied at 25 DAS can be recommended for effective and eco-friendly weed management in maize, which would provide higher maize grain yield and enhance farmers' profitability.

A major drawback of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is susceptibility to frosts, which reduces yields and limits its geographic distribution and market growth. Whereas the frost-susceptible cultivar ‘Hass’ leads the global avocado market, cv. ‘Ettinger’, although commercially less important, is considered frost-tolerant. The mechanism behind the greater frost tolerance of ‘Ettinger’ has not yet been elucidated; therefore, the aim of the current study was to evaluate the differences between the frost responses of the two cultivars. The results showed that detached ‘Ettinger’ branches had greater tolerance than ‘Hass’ to controlled frost stress. Tissue browning caused by methyl viologen oxidative cell damage, superoxide accumulation in leaf discs following wounding and browning of cut surfaces in branches were much lower in ‘Ettinger’ than in ‘Hass’, suggesting greater antioxidant activity (AA) in the former. In leaf extracts, AA was significantly higher in ‘Ettinger’ than in ‘Hass’, but osmolarity was similar in the two cultivars. Total phenolics content was significantly higher in ‘Ettinger’ but addition of a protein mask did not significantly reduce AA in either cultivar. Interestingly, following the freezing treatment, AA increased in ‘Ettinger’ and remained almost unchanged in ‘Hass’, while osmolarity was unaffected in either cultivar. These results suggest that the greater frost-tolerance of ‘Ettinger’ than ‘Hass’ is due largely to its greater AA, which springs mainly from a non-enzymatic source, i.e. accumulation of phenolic compounds. Based on the current study, future applications may be developed to minimize frost damage in avocado orchards.

Urine is a critical nitrogen (N) input in temperate grazed grasslands and can drive substantial nitrous oxide (N2O) production in soils. However, it remains unclear how differences in the N input rate affect N2O fluxes and vary between different grassland soils. The effect of increasing urine N application on ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2−) and nitrate (NO3−) concentrations and N2O production was tested in two grassland soils, a free-draining loam and an imperfectly drained sandy-loam. It was hypothesized that high-urine N application rates would lead to ammonia/ammonium (NH3/NH4+) accumulation influencing N transformation rates and N2O production which differ between grassland soils. Fresh cattle urine was applied at rates equivalent to 300 and 1000 kg N/ha in an aerobic incubation experiment. Soils were destructively sampled over 80 days to measure changes in inorganic-N and pH. The higher N addition rate was associated with elevated NH3 concentrations up to day 35 in soils, probably inhibiting NO2− to NO3− reduction. In contrast, there was no inhibition of nitrification in the 300 kg N/ha treatment. Cumulative N2O fluxes were greatest from the 300 kg N/ha treatment for the loam soil, but were greater for the sandy-loam under the 1000 kg N/ha treatment. The results also show that differences in soil properties, in particular carbon availability, can be important in regulating N transformation and N2O production. Collectively, these results demonstrate the proposed mechanism of nitrification inhibition at high-N input rates, driven by either high NH3/NH4 and/or increased levels of NH4HCO3 from urea hydrolysis.