Behavioural oestrus was studied using 32 Friesian × Bunaji and 29 Bunaji heifers standing for mounts by either vasectomized bulls or heifer herdmates. The study was conducted from 06.00 to 12.00 h and from 13.00 to 18.00 h local time for 96 days. All the 61 heifers showedoestrus. The mounts received by the heifers ranged from 68 to 170, being few between the first 24 days but increasing later. A total of 171 oestrous cycles were recorded, 85·4% of which had a mean oestrous cycle length (± S.E.) of 22·6 ± 0·9 days, while the average duration of oestrus (± S.E.) was 5·9 ± 0·2 h. Results showed significant differences between the mounts made by the teasers as well as mounts received by the heifer groups (both P = 0·01), but the teaser x heifer group interaction was not significant (P > 0·05). As all the heifers showed oestrus at least once, observation for oestrus between 06.00 and 18.00 hwould be reliable for supporting an artificial insemination scheme in the Guinea Savannah of Nigeria.

Cakes derived from Taramira (Eruca sativa), Raya (Brassica juncea), Toria (B. campestris var. toria) and yellow and brown sarson (B. campestris var. sarson) were evaluated for their contents of crude protein, true protein, essential amino acids, available carbohydrate and tannins. Feeding trials were also conducted to compare the suitability of these cakes with groundnut cake for broilers and White Leghorn chicks up to 4 weeks of age.

The crude protein content of Taramira cake was 33% whereas all the other cakes contained 37–38%. True protein accounted for 80–83% of crude protein in all the varieties and albumin and globulin constitutes the bulk of protein. The critical amino acid content of all the brassica seed proteins was found to be higher than that of other vegetable proteins although varietal differences were observed with respect to a few essential amino acids. The hulls accounted for 19% of whole Brassica seed and their removal raised the concentration of protein from 39 to 46% and reduced the crude fibre content from 15 to 6% in the defatted meal. Tannin content was higher in Taramira (1·74%) than in all other varieties (1·0–1·4%) and the major quantity of it was localized in the endosperm. The average metabolizable energy content of all the mustard cakes was 9·62 and 8·75 MJ/kg for meat-type and egg-type chicks, respectively. The nutritive value of Taramira cake was poorer than that of other Brassica cakes or groundnut cake for supporting growth rate of chicks of either breed.

Knowing the genetic regulation of fitness is crucial for using mutants in breeding programmes, particularly when the mutant is deleterious in some genetic backgrounds, as it happens with the sweet corn mutant sugary1 (su1) in maize (Zea mays L.). The fitness and genetic effects of maize mutant su1 were monitored through five successive selfing generations in two separated mean-generation designs. The first involved two inbreds with similar genetic backgrounds, while unrelated inbreds were used for the second design. Parents, F1s, F2s, and backcrosses were crossed to P39 as the donor of su1 and the 12 crosses were successively self-pollinated for 5 years. The su1 frequency decreased linearly across selfing generations in both designs. Additive effects were significant for su1 seed viability. However, dominance effects were of higher magnitude than additive effects, even though the dominance effects were not significant. Genetic effects depended on genotypes and environments. Therefore, the fitness of su1 is under genetic control, with significant additive effects due to minor contributions of multiple genes. The fitness of su1 is strongly affected by maize genotypic background and environment. It is hypothesized that genotypes could have evolutionary potential for modulating the fitness of single mutations.

The objective of the present study was to determine the pasture intake of European wild boar and domestic pigs throughout their growth period (from 60 to 207 days of age). The proportion of time that each animal type spent grazing was also determined. Twelve 60-day-old pure-bred European wild boar (six castrated males and six females, average live-weight (±s.e.m.) 6·8 ± 0·37 kg) and 12 70-day-old domestic pigs (Large White × Landrace, six castrated males and six females, average live-weight [ ± s.e.m.] 24·1 ± 0·66 kg) were used in the study. Each day during the study, the animals grazed from 08·00 until 16·00 h, after which they had ad-libitum access to a supplemental diet for 1 h. Every 14 days throughout the study (a total of ten determinations), the pasture consumption was determined as the difference between the pasture dry matter (DM) availability pre- and post-grazing. The supplemental diet consumption was also determined. Three times during the study (age of animals 85, 140 and 198 days), the behaviour of each animal was observed over four consecutive days while grazing. When considered on a metabolic bodyweight basis, the pasture consumption of the European wild boar was greater than that in the domestic pigs. Approximately 0·20 of the total DM intake by the wild boar was pasture, whereas only 0·10 of the total DM intake by the domestic pigs was pasture. However, domestic pigs consumed a greater quantity of supplemental diet than the wild boar. The wild boar obtained 0·20 of their total daily dietary apparent energy intake from pasture, compared with 0·07 in the domestic pigs. Wild boar were more active during 8-h grazing periods spending 0·54 of their time grazing or moving around, compared with 0·32 of the time in domestic pigs.

Recently, organic farming systems have attracted the attention of consumers because of their low environmental impact. Organic agriculture is a valid alternative to conventional farming and ancient wheat, such as KAMUT® khorasan wheat (T. turgidum ssp. turanicum), has emerged as an industry leader for its nutritional and functional properties (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and prebiotic).

The aim of the present study was to evaluate environmental effects on the quality of KAMUT® khorasan grains harvested in the last two decades (1989–2012) on one farm in Montana (USA), through the evaluation of phytochemical accumulation. Results revealed high variability in the amounts of macronutrients and nutraceuticals. In particular, from 1989 to 2012, there was a decreasing trend in starch content (ranging from 70·87 to 50·54/100 g) and amylose (from 41·48 to 31·46% of total starch) with a slight increase of insoluble dietary fibre (from 12·14 to 17·75/100 g). The soluble dietary fibre content varied among the years of cultivation even if the general trend remained constant (4·57–2·82/100 g). High variability of total polyphenols content was observed with the free soluble fraction present at lower levels than bound polyphenols (BP). Moreover, an inverse correlation between free and BP was observed. The results obtained in the present study show that the influence of environmental conditions plays a fundamental role in the accumulation of primary and secondary metabolites in wheat kernels and strongly modulate the nutritional and nutraceutical value of flour.

Field experiments during the wet seasons of 1981–1985 determined the response of soya bean to the application of P, K and Mo at four locations in the Nigerian savanna. Soya bean was grown at factorial combinations of four rates of P (0, 13·2, 26·4 and 396 kg P/ha) and two rates of K. (0 or 41·5 kg K/ha) in 1981, but in subsequent years two or three rates of Mo (0, 0·5 or 1·0 kg ammonium molybdate/ha) were included in a randomized complete block design with three replications at all locations.

Significant yield increases due to the application of P were recorded in 10 out of 11 trials. Yield increases due to 13·2 or 26·4 kg P/ha were from 29 to 210% over the control. The effects of K and Mo application were not significant in 10 out of 11 trials and eight out of nine trials, respectively. Whereas P x Mo interaction effects were significant in three trials only, highest yields were recorded due to application of 26·4 or 39·6 kg P/ha in combination with 0·5 kg ammonium molybdate/ha.

Application of P increased the percentage of P in soya-bean leaves significantly and a range of 0·275–0·330% P appears to be the critical nutrient range of P in soya-bean leaves at full bloom stage. Application of K had no effect on K concentration in leaves.

An attempt has been made in the investigation described in this paper to elucidate the nutritional characteristics of winter pasturage. The yield, composition and digestibility have been determined of pasturage produced by unrestricted growth over the following periods: (1) end of July 1932 to December 1932; (2) end of August 1932 to January 1933; (3) end of September 1932 to February 1933; (4) end of October 1931 to March 1932. In both years of experiment the winters were mild and open, and the conditions as a whole were such as to enable the nutritional possibilities of winter grazing to be studied under the most favourable conditions. In order to assess the influence of winter conditions on composition and feeding value the results in every case have been compared with data, obtained in investigations in previous years on the same pasture, for spring and summer herbage of comparable height, stage of growth and botanical composition.

The production of flowers in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) has been associated with a reduction in root relative to shoot growth and the post-flowering period with the death of roots. Any effect that reproductive development has upon the root system does not appear to adversely affect subsequent shoot growth. In the present experiments, vernalized plants restricted to root axes present prior to flowering showed little difference in herbage production and length of life compared with unvernalized plants similarly restricted. Flower production did, however, limit the ability of plants to initiate main root axes. It would seem unlikely that the mid-summer depression of herbage growth is due to the effect of reproductive development upon the root system.

Eighty-nine Fayomi pullets were classified into three major classes High, Medium and Low according to the intensity of egg laying. Six birds in each class were slaughtered. The major body organs were dissected and weighed. The number and diameter of the visible oocytes were recorded. The dressing out percentage was obtained. The results were as follows:

1. During the first year of laying, the averagenumber of eggs laid per day was 0·50, 0·42 and 0·24 eggs for the High, Medium and Low classes respectively.

2. There were significant differences in the ovarian weight, length and weight of oviduct, these being highest in the High class.

3. The number of visible oocytes was some 200 in all classes. There were, however, differences between classes in the maturation rate of the oocytes as measured by the differences in the diameter of successive ones.

4. The weight of blood, feathers, head, wings and legs were higher in the Low than in the High; these are all early maturing organs.

5. The weights of the full alimentary canal and the empty gizzard were higher in the High than in the Low, this might be accounted for by a greater appetite and to intake of feed induced by the higher egg production.

6. There were no significant differences in the weight of the circulatory, excretory and respiratory organs which are needed for the physiological welfare of the birds.

7. The dressing out percentage was higher in the Low and Medium than in the High. This may be due to the greater drainage of nutrients required for high egg production.

In 14 experiments made from 1968 to 1970 yields of, percentages of N in and amounts of N removed by the grain were compared: (1) when N was injected, either as aqueous ammonia (with or without a combine-drilled ‘starter’ dose of N) or as aqueous urea, or when broadcast as ammonium nitrate (‘Nitro-Chalk 21’) and: (2) when comparable liquid (14–6–8) and granular (20–10–10) NPK compound fertilizers were applied, either over the seed bed (sprayed or broadcast), or combine-drilled. All were applied to give 63 or 126kgN/ha.

Barley yields were increased significantly more by combine-drilled than by broadcast PK (0–20–20) fertilizer, especially when only 32 kg P2O5 and K2O/ha was given. N was better combine-drilled than broadcast when 63 kg/ha was given, but not with 126 kg/ha. Soil analyses suggested a limiting value for P.

Yields and N recoveries were largest when one-fifth of the N was combine-drilled (as 6–15–15) and the remainder injected as aqueous ammonia in bands 30 cm apart and 12 cm deep. Injecting all the N, either as aqueous ammonia or as urea, gave yields a little smaller than this, but still larger than from broadcasting ammonium nitrate.

The liquid NPK fertilizer gave smaller yields than the granular one in the two dry springs (1968 and 1969), but similar yields in the cool wet one (1970), both when applied over the seed bed and when combine-drilled. The smaller yields with the liquid fertilizer were associated with a severe check and loss of plant when it was combinedrilled (presumably caused by urea) and poorer growth after it was sprayed (presumably through loss of N to the air and greater dispersal of P in the soil). The single amount of each fertilizer increased yields more when combine-drilled than when broadcast, but not the double amount, which, especially as liquid, was safer when surface-applied. Effects of site and season upon mean yields were large.

To increase the productivity of fields growing direct-seeded upland rice, which usually gives low yields because of weed competition, unsatisfactory establishment and exposure to intermittent drought, an experiment on intercropping of rice with blackgram was conducted in two seasons under rainfed conditions on a sandy loam soil. Blackgram, when intersown simultaneously in one row in every 30 cm wide space left between the stand of 10 cm apart paired rows of rice, reduced the yield of rice by 1·64 t/ha. When one row of blaokgram was intersown, 21 days after sowing of rice (after completing weeding) between the paired rows of rice, rice yield was reduced by only 0·24 t/ha compared with solecropping of rice with weeding. This system provided mean yields of 2·48 t/ha of riceand 0·95 t/ha of blackgram. The price of blackgram being high, it showed a mean monetary advantage of Rs. 2373/ha over sole cropping of rice. The blackgram reduced the weed population appreciably.

1. Following an examination of weaning weight with respect to litter size, it is concluded that no general relation between the two exists. Although a significant regression of weight on litter size was found, it appears probable that in herds where the relation between fertility and milk yield is different, such a regression will not necessarily be found.

2. A sampling experiment was carried out to determine the extent to which a sample might be expected to represent the whole litter. A correlation of 0·96 was found between the mean growth rate of samples consisting of the four pigs nearest the average at weaning and the mean of the whole litter. This represents a loss of 8 per cent of the information. With three or two pigs chosen in the same way the loss was greater. Samples of four pigs chosen at random did not give results significantly different from those of the four pigs nearest the average. The choice of the heaviest four pigs resulted in a loss of 15 per cent of the information.

3. The slight difference between the results from the random sample and the sample of the four average pigs indicated that there must have been only a small correlation, between weaning weight and subsequent rate of growth. An analysis of post-weaning rate of growth showed that the intra-class correlation of pigs of the same weaning weight was 0·15. Individual weight at weaning would therefore appear to be of slight value in estimating subsequent performance.

4. Intra-litter correlations of growth rate for litter classes eight and nine were found to be 0·3 and 0·5. These values are higher than those found by others, probably as a result of the inclusion of the pre-weaning period in the calculation of the growth rates. There would appear to be grounds for believing that at least a fifth of the individual variance may be accounted for by additive gene effects.

1. An investigation has been made into the changes that take place in the free amino-acid pattern when kale-water slurries are allowed to ferment under conditions of (a) aeration, (b) anaerobiasis and (c) partial sterilization with sulphur dioxide.

2. It has been found that, with aerated mixtures, the loss of free amino-acids is virtually complete within 2 weeks, while there is only a slight loss with the anaerobic mixtures. With mixtures containing sulphur dioxide no loss of amino-acids occur.

3. The formation of α-amino butyric acid possibly from threonine has been noted.

Semen samples were collected from buffalo bulls by a.v. at intervals of 24, 12, 8 and 2 hr., four consecutive ejaculates being collected for each bull in every treatment. Semen qualities were measured in fresh and stored ejaculate at 4° C. for 48 hr.

1. (a) In fresh semen, the average initial values were 3·12 ml. for volume, 645 × 103 for concentration per cubic millimetre, 2134 × 106 per ejaculate, 7·25 for motility, 80·1% for live spermatozoa and 21·1% for abnormals.

(b) Volume, concentration and percentage of live sperm were not affected by successive ejaculations.

(c) Motility started to decrease after the third collection in most cases.

(d) Percentage of abnormals was highly affected irrespective of interval of collection.

(e) When the interval of collection was short, enlarged middle piece of spermatozoa and detached galea capitis were observed.

2. (a) In stored semen, the average values were for motility 3·12%, for live sperm 64·5%, and for abnormals 27·4%.

(b) Storage caused a decrease in motility and an increase in percentage of abnormals, while it had no effect on percentage of live sperm.

(c) The rupture of head membrane of spermatozoa was observed in stored semen.

1. Laboratory experiments in five soils to which hoof and horn materials were added at different concentrations have shown that the percentages nitrified throughout the transformation were largely independent of the level of application. The ranges of concentration used were 90–360 p.p.m., 150–350 p.p.m. and 100–300 p.p.m. nitrogen.

Similar results were obtained with dried blood in two soils.

2. Experiments in two soils with ammonium sulphate and in one soil with glycine, urea and guano showed a different response to level of application, the percentages nitrified at the different concentrations being widely different throughout the period of active transformation.

3. An explanation of the results is given on the basis of the relative rates of formation of ammonia and of its transformation to nitrate.

4. The importance of ammonia determinations in the interpretation of nitrification studies is emphasized.

The nitrogen content of oats depends chiefly on the nitrogen content (1·4–3·9%) of the kernel and the kernel content (64–81%) of the oats, the husk containing only 3–10% of the total nitrogen in the grain.

Varietal differences are significant but small in comparison with the overall variability: they reach 0·3% nitrogen in a few cases. Variation between random samples is largely due to soil differences, with region and harvest year responsible for smaller effects. The predominant factor governing nitrogen level in oats of all varieties probably is, as for wheat, the level of available nitrogen in the soil in late spring and early summer, just prior to heading and during development of the grain.

Within the variety there is a pronounced inverse correlation between nitrogen and oil content which is independent of grain size: the variability of the oil content within the variety is, however, smaller than the corresponding variability of the nitrogen content. At some localities environmental factors of soil and season, particularly the former, inhibit the filling out of the grains which then ripen prematurely to give small oats with lean kernels of high nitrogen content, and favour within the variety a negative correlation between grain size and nitrogen which otherwise might not be apparent.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) micro-imaging techniques have been employed to study noninvasively the spatial distribution of mobile protons (1H) around the cotyledonary node of flax (Linum usitatissimum) plants of two differing growth morphologies. The gross anatomy of the tissues of the stem can be discerned as a result of differences in their mobile 1H contents. The technique produced excellent images of the complex changes in stem structure that occur at the point of origin of side shoots. Detailed structure within the xylem could be visualized and the presence of fibre bundles deduced as dark areas amongst tissues of higher 1H signal intensity.

As a result of the non-invasive and non-destructive nature of NMR-imaging, the images obtained have been compared to micrographs obtained by conventional histological techniques on the same plant tissue. In general, the two approaches produce comparable results, but the NMR images are influenced by the relaxation properties of the protons as well as their concentration. Paramagnetic species, such as Mn2+ ions, produce enhanced relaxation rates of protons in their vicinity and an apparent increase in proton density at short recycle times. Thus an NMR image can yield both chemical and structural information. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique over conventional histological methods are discussed.

Before proceeding to discuss the immediate subject of this communication, it may be well to recapitulate shortly the views on the general question of the meaning of strength of flours which I expressed in the last number of this journal. It may perhaps be remembered that I suggested that strength, as defined by Humphries and Biffen, to be the capacity of making large well-piled loaves, must be a complex of at least two factors. One of these factors, that which regulates the size of the loaf, I showed to be the power of continuing to evolve carbon dioxide gas throughout the later stages of dough fermentation. I described how to measure this property by incubating in a bottle at 40ºC. a mixture of 20 gms. flour, 20 c.c. water, and ½gm. yeast, the bottle being connected to a gas measuring apparatus, and the volume of gas given off being read from time to time. A number of experimental figures were given, which showed that the size of the loaf which a flour could make, was directly connected with the rate at which it gave off gas in the later stages of dough fermentation, at the time when it was ready for the oven.

Pomegranate peels (PP) and mango leaves (ML) were analysed for nutrients and tannin contents. In an in vitro test, ten diets were prepared; six contained 2, 4 and 6% of PP or ML, three diets supplemented with mixed levels of PP and ML (1 + 1%, 2 + 2% and 3 + 3%) and control diet free of them. Gas was measured after 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h of incubation. Methane and rumen parameters were estimated. In an in vivo experiment, 40 Ossimi lambs were divided into four groups; the first was control, other groups (T1, T2 and T3) fed diets containing 6% PP, 6% ML or mix levels (3% PP + 3%ML), respectively, for 2 months. Results showed that PP and ML were rich in tannins. In the in vitro test, a maximum reduction in gas, methane and NH3-N was in 6% PP, 6% ML and mixed levels (3% PP + 3% ML). In the in vivo experiment, there were no differences in growth and digestibility of DM and nutrients between treatment groups. Only a lowered DM intake and protein digestibility in lambs fed 6% PP. Gas and methane emission was decreased significantly in lambs fed 6% PP, compared to other groups. TVFAs and NH3-N were decreased for treatment groups. Also, all treatments did not show any pathological changes in liver function or on oxidative stress markers. In conclusion, PP and ML can be used in sheep diets at inclusion levels of 6% and mixture without detrimental effects on general health of Ossimi lambs.

Eighteen growing cattle with a mean live weight of 180 kg were used to study the influence of restricted water on feed intake, nutrient utilization and nitrogen metabolism in Zebu cattle in the Sudano–Sahelian ecological zone of Nigeria.

Feed intake and water consumption were negatively correlated (r = 0·63). As the amount of water intake was reduced from 15·8 to 11·91/day, the mean feed intake increased from 5·6 to 6·8 kg D.M./day; water to feed ratios decreased from 2·83 to 1·75 and average daily live-weight gain as well as apparent feed utilization efficiency improved significantly from free-choice water to 50% of free-choice water treatments respectively.

Apparent digestibility coefficients of almost all the nutrients from the 75 and 50% of free-choice water treatments indicated progressively higher (though not significant) values than those of the free-choice water treatment. Nitrogen metabolism did not indicate any difference in the nitrogen intake in any of the three treatments; however, nitrogen balance and nitrogen retained as a percentage of nitrogen intake were significantly (P < 0·05) higher on the 50% of free-choice water treatment.

The survival ability of these Zebu breeds of cattle under water stress during the acute water scarcity of the protracted dry period of the Sudan–Sahelian zone of Nigeria could probably be attributed to increased recycling of nitrogen as well as a reduction in nitrogen loss during the period.