Insect fauna biodiversity in natural protected areas has not been thoroughly studied. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess whether and how vegetation types, land management and seasonality influence the diversity of Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) in the Ría Lagartos Biosphere Reserve (Mexico). A sampling programme was conducted using Malaise traps from 2008 to 2009 in three vegetation types, each with two conservation zones (core and buffer zones). Three seasons were considered: rainy, dry and north-winds (isolated storms from November to February). A total of 336 species were identified. Rarefaction and Generalized Linear Model indicated higher species richness and abundance, respectively, in the buffer zone of the dry forest; possible explanations for this finding include the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, wherein diversity can be higher in sites where disturbance is not very frequent or very intense, and the ‘enemies hypothesis’, wherein structural complexity and high plant diversity favour increased predators or, in this case, parasitoids. Diversity was higher during the rainy season, which may have been due to the higher availability of resources. Vegetation and management had a positive impact on the Coc (attack cocoons and pupae) and Myc (attack concealed larvae living in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms) parasitoid guilds. Members of the Coc guild are generalist parasitoids, which may be favoured in complex vegetation with a high richness of potential hosts and non-hosts. The Myc guild requires certain environmental conditions that promote fungal growth, such as humidity, that is absent in the other vegetation types of savannah and coastal dune scrubland.

The correct identification of sand fly vectors of leishmaniasis is important for controlling the disease. Genetic, particularly DNA sequence data, has lately become an important adjunct to the use of morphological criteria for this purpose. A recent DNA sequencing study revealed the presence of two cryptic species in the Sergentomyia bailyi species complex in India. The present study was undertaken to ascertain the presence of cryptic species in the Se. bailyi complex in Sri Lanka using morphological characteristics and DNA sequences from cytochrome c oxidase subunits. Sand flies were collected from leishmaniasis endemic and non-endemic dry zone districts of Sri Lanka. A total of 175 Se. bailyi specimens were initially screened for morphological variations and the identified samples formed two groups, tentatively termed as Se. bailyi species A and B, based on the relative length of the sensilla chaeticum and antennal flagellomere. DNA sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and subunit II (COII) genes of morphologically identified Se. bailyi species A and B were subsequently analyzed. The two species showed differences in the COI and COII gene sequences and were placed in two separate clades by phylogenetic analysis. An allele specific polymerase chain reaction assay based on sequence variation in the COI gene accurately differentiated species A and B. The study therefore describes the first morphological and genetic evidence for the presence of two cryptic species within the Se. bailyi complex in Sri Lanka and a DNA-based laboratory technique for differentiating them.

Lymantia dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), commonly known as the gypsy moth, is a serious forest pest, and beneficial insects are particularly important for reducing its population numbers. Ooencyrtus kuvanae (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is an arrhenotokous, solitary egg parasitoid of L. dispar. In this study, we evaluated a new substitute host, Philosamia ricini (Danovan) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) for O. kuvanae. We investigated some of the biological effects of O. kuvanae on P. ricini eggs. In this context, the importance of the age of the female parasitoid (1, 3 or 5 days old), host age (1–2 and 3–4 days old) and host number (40, 60 and 80 host eggs) were examined under laboratory conditions (25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 5% relative humidity and a 16 : 8 h photoperiod [light : dark]). The highest rate of offspring production (89.90%) occurred with 40 (1–2-day-old) host eggs and 5-day-old females. The mean developmental period ranged from 16.5 ± 0.08 days to 18.7 ± 0.08 days. The mean lifespan of the parasitoid was 51.10 ± 1.1 (n = 60) days with bio-honey and 3.92 ± 0.14 (n = 60) days without food. The mean fecundity was 68.88 ± 3.22 offspring/female. Peak adult emergence occurred between 2 and 9 days. The mean oviposition and mean post-oviposition periods of the female parasitoid were 22.76 ± 1.37 days and 13.64 ± 1.40 days, respectively. O. kuvanae was reared for more than ten generations on the eggs of P. ricini. Based on our findings, P. ricini can be used to rear O. kuvanae for the biological control of L. dispar.

The acceptance of different provenances or seed origins of lodgepole pine Pinus contorta and Scots pine P. sylvestris as suitable oviposition sites was found to vary as a function of both tree age and insect species. Experiments on seedling lodgepole pine revealed that the pine sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer Geoffroy (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae), and the larch bud moth, Zeiraphera diniana Guennée (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), preferred more southerly provenances of lodgepole pine. The pine beauty moth, Panolis flammea Denis & Schiffermüller (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), however, preferred more northerly provenances. On mature lodgepole pine however, P. flammea exhibited a host change, preferring the more southerly provenances. Neodiprion sertifer showed a similar preference on both seedling and mature provenances. The results of this study suggest that some provenances of lodgepole pine become more resistant to attack by P. flammea as they mature, while others become more susceptible. This may be related to the feeding, strategies of the two insects: P. flammea larvae feed on current year foliage while N. sertifer feeds only on previous year foliage. It is possible that the mechanism for chemical defence of new shoots changes as the trees mature, and to a varying degree in different provenances, while defence of the previous years foliage remains unchanged. Results also indicate that odour alone as opposed to odour plus visual stimulation may invoke different ovipositional behaviour in N. sertifer.

A number of tettigoniids belonging to the genera Sexava, Segestes and Segestidea are responsible for severe defoliation of coconut palm, oil palm and Pandanus spp. in Papua New Guinea. Most chemical and cultural methods of control are either impractical or uneconomic. The possibility of biological control was examined with reference to some of the natural enemies of Segestes decoratus Redtenbacher, in particular a parasite of nymphs and adults, Stichotrema dallatorreanum Hofeneder, as well as the egg parasites Triteleia atrella (Dodd), a species of Tetrastichus near T. dubius (Waterston) and a second species of Tetrastichus. It was concluded that S. dallatorreanum contributed to the control of Segestes decoratus in areas with an evenly distributed rainfall and that the parasite had potential as a biological control agent in areas where it is not endemic against pest species of Sexava, Segestes and Segestidea. A survey of the egg parasites showed that they were not effective in controlling the pests as they were only able to parasitize eggs in exposed oviposition sites. Egg predators of unknown identity were responsible for higher egg mortality than were the egg parasites.

The ultimate assessment of the efficiency of malaria control is by the number of cases of malaria contracted in the controlled area, but a method that gives a more immediate and definite information is required because of the:—

(i) Delay before the necessary information is obtained. For example, abandonment of larval control will not affect the number of malaria cases for more than a month;

(ii) Shifting populations. People will come into the area and develop malaria acquired outside and conversely people having acquired malaria inside the area will go outside before developing it;

(iii) Difficulty of distinguishing between relapses and newly acquired infections. The number of relapses has no connection with the efficiency of the control;

(iv) Lack of cases of malaria despite infection in a predominantly immune community in which the non-immune persons are protected by suppressive drugs, mepacrine and quinine. This is a common condition in very malarious areas.

Field trials were carried out in order to evaluate some of the factors affecting male response of the almond seed wasp, Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein, to traps baited with the alkadienes (Z,Z)-6,9-tricosadiene and (Z,Z)-6,9-pentacosadiene, the male attractant of this species. The trials were conducted in Latomia, Microthivae, Kanalia and Sykourion (Thessaly, Central Greece) during the 2004 growing season. In all regions, captures in traps baited with a 7:3 ratio of the above blend significantly and positively correlated with male emergence from infested almonds that had been placed in cages in the experimental fields. Traps baited with the 7:3 pheromone ratio were significantly more effective in capturing males than traps baited with the 1:1 ratio, supporting the hypothesis that (Z,Z)-6,9-tricosadiene is the main component of this attractant. Of four trap types tested, Rebel and Lasiotraps attracted significantly more males than Delta and Funnel traps. Height had no effect on trap efficiency; however, males were captured earlier in the day in traps placed 2.3 m above grown than in traps placed 1.3 m above grown. Most male activity was recorded between 10 and 12 h, but captures were continuously recorded during the entire monitoring interval from 6 to 17 h.

The effect on aphid population development of creating natural enemy refuges by spraying only alternate strips of winter wheat with the aphid-specific insecticide pirimicarb at 140 g a.i./ha was compared with those in an unsprayed and a completely sprayed block in south-eastern England. The numbers of Sitobion avenae (F.), Metopolophium dirhodum (Walker) and Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) increased rapidly in the unsprayed block and in the unsprayed strips to reach similar peak densities in early August. Natural enemy activity was similar in these two areas, indicating negligible movement of predators and parasitoids from the sprayed strips to the unsprayed strips. Instead, aphids re-colonized the sprayed strips more quickly than the sprayed block, and the peak density in the former was similar to those in the unsprayed areas.

Insect response to cold stress is often associated with adaptive strategies and chemical variation. However, low-temperature domestication to promote the cold tolerance potential of Bactrocera dorsalis and transformation of main internal substances are not clear. Here, we use a series of low-temperature exposure experiments, supercooling point (SCP) measurement, physiological substances and cryoprotectants detection to reveal that pre-cooling with milder low temperatures (5 and 10°C) for several hours (rapid cold hardening) and days (cold acclimation) can dramatically improve the survival rate of adults and pupae under an extremely low temperature (−6.5°C). Besides, the effect of rapid cold hardening for adults could be maintained even 4 h later with 25°C exposures, and SCP was significantly declined after cold acclimation. Furthermore, content of water, fat, protein, glycogen, sorbitol, glycerol and trehalose in bodies were measured. Results showed that water content was reduced and increased content of proteins, glycogen, glycerol and trehalose after two cold domestications. Our findings suggest that rapid cold hardening and cold acclimation could enhance cold tolerance of B. dorsalis by increasing proteins, glycerol, trehalose and decreasing water content. Conclusively, identifying a physiological variation will be useful for predicting the occurrence and migration trend of B. dorsalis populations.

Many parasitoid species discriminate already parasitized hosts, thus avoiding larval competition. However, females incur in superparasitism under certain circumstances. Superparasitism is commonly observed in the artificial rearing of the parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata, yet host discrimination has been previously suggested in this species. Here, we addressed host discrimination in virgin D. longicaudata females in a comprehensive way by means of direct and indirect methods, using Ceratitis capitata and Anastrepha fraterculus which are major fruit fly pests in South America. Direct methods relied on the description of the foraging behaviour of females in arenas with parasitized and non-parasitized host larvae. In the indirect methods, healthy larvae were offered to single females and the egg distributions were compared to a random distribution. We found that D. longicaudata was able to recognize parasitized host from both host species, taking 24 h since a first parasitization for A. fraterculus and 48 h for C. capitata. Indirect methods showed females with different behaviours for both host species: complete discrimination, non-random (with superparasitism), and random distributions. A larger percentage of females reared and tested on A. fraterculus incurred in superparasitism, probably associated with higher fecundity. In sum, we found strong evidence of host discrimination in D. longicaudata, detecting behavioural variability associated with the host species, the time since the first parasitization and the fecundity of the females.

Wood-and-fibre-board huts fitted with one-way entry and exit traps were sprayed with DDT and BHC wettable powders at dosages 3·3 and 1·5 times the dosages reported by Muirhead Thomson in Tanganyika. Mud huts similar to his design were sprayed at 1·4 times his dosage of DDT and 1·1 times his dosage of BHC. Catches of Anopheline mosquitos continued for 16 weeks.

In the first-named huts kills of A. gambiae were 97 per cent. for both treatments. Kills of A. funestus were 100 per cent. and 97 per cent. for DDT and BHC respectively.

In the mud huts kills of A. gambiae were 62 per cent. and 98 per cent. for DDT and BHC respectively. For A. funestus kills were 78 per cent. and 93 per cent. in the same order.

The advantages claimed for the wood-and-fibre-board huts include :—

(a) freedom from ants, which may remove dead mosquitos.

(b) ease of catching live adult mosquitos.

(c) rigid construction of exit trap.

(d) lack of adventitious exits other than exit trap.

Twenty-one collections of larvae and pupae from Bromeliads, growing in trees or on the ground, were made in São Salvador, the capital of the State of Bahia, Brazil. Four species of Microculex and one Sabethine were bred out. Of these, one new species and certain new forms are described. The new species is called Culex (Microculex) davisi in honour of Dr. Nelson C. Davis, at whose suggestion this study was first undertaken. Since no Aëdes (Stegomyia) aegypti were found, it would appear that Bromeliad breeding is probably of no importance from the standpoint of a yellow fever control campaign in this region.

In his recently published work, “A Classification of the Higher Groups and Genera of the Coccid Family Margarodidae” (U.S. Dept.Agr., Tech. Bull. no. 52, July 1928), Mr. H. Morrison has made some sweeping alterationsin the previously accepted status of tribes and genera, some of which may possibly be open to criticism. But his classification is so vastly superior to anything hitherto attempted that—if only for the sake of uniformity—it should be adopted until a still better complete classification has been propounded. So far as it affects the matter dealt with in the following paper the only novelty is the erection of a new subfamily, Coelostomidiinae, with several new tribes and genera, to accommodate the species hitherto included in Coelostomidia, together with several allied genera.

The mutualism between fig trees and their wasp pollinators is a model system for many ecological and evolutionary studies. However, the immature stages of pollinating fig wasps have rarely been studied. We monitored developing fig wasps of known ages and performed a series of dissections at 24 h intervals to identify key developmental traits of Ceratosolen solmsi marchali Mayr (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae), a pollinator of Ficus hispida L. (Moraceae). We identified where in the Ficus ovary eggs were deposited and time to hatch. We were also able to identify the timing and key underlying characters of five larval instars, three sub-pupal stages, and a single prepupal stage. We provide detailed morphological descriptions for the key stages and report some behavioral observations of the wasps in the several developmental stages we recorded. Scanning electron microscope images were taken.

Gene flow based on the spatial distribution of rare alleles at 25 gene loci was estimated in 15 populations of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) from different parts of the world. Estimates of Nm, the number of migrants exchanged per generation among populations in different regions of the world, appeared to be quite similar, ranging from 3.36 in tropical Africa to 2.94 in the New World and 2.72 in Mediterranean basin populations. This suggests that gene flow among neighbouring populations of medfly is quite extensive. The genetic differentiation in American, Mediterranean and African populations was related to major climatic differences between North and South. These differences arise mainly from five loci that showed gene frequency patterns suggestive of latitudinal clines in allele frequencies. The clinal variation was such that tropical-subtropical populations were more heterozygous than temperate populations. It was concluded that gene flow, counteracting the forces of natural selection and genetic drift, determines the extent to which geographical populations of C. capitata are differentiated.

Insects are mass-reared for release for biocontrol including the sterile insect technique. Insects are usually reared at temperatures that maximize the number of animals produced, are chilled for handling and transport, and released into the field, where temperatures may be considerably different to those experienced previously. Insect thermal biology is phenotypically plastic (i.e. flexible), which means that there may exist opportunities to increase the performance of these programmes by modifying the temperature regimes during rearing, handling, and release. Here we synthesize the literature on thermal plasticity in relation to the opportunities to reduce temperature-related damage and increase the performance of released insects. We summarize how and why temperature affects insect biology, and the types of plasticity shown by insects. We specifically identify aspects of the production chain that might lead to mismatches between the thermal acclimation of the insect and the temperatures it is exposed to, and identify ways to harness physiological plasticity to reduce that potential mismatch. We address some of the practical (especially engineering) challenges to implementing some of the best-supported thermal regimes to maximize performance (e.g. fluctuating thermal regimes), and acknowledge that a focus only on thermal performance may lead to unwanted trade-offs with other traits that contribute to the success of the programme. Together, it appears that thermal physiological plasticity is well-enough understood to allow its implementation in release programmes.

Stenoponia tripectinata tripectinata (Tiraboschi, 1902) is the most prevalent subspecies, within the genus Stenoponia, in the Mediterranean area. This rodent flea is widely distributed throughout southwestern Europe and the North of Africa including Mediterranean islands and the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, from a taxonomical and systematic point, this flea group has been neglected over the years. Therefore, the aim of this study was to carry out a comparative morphometric, phylogenetic, and molecular study of two populations of S. t. tripectinata isolated from rodents collected from different islands from the Canary Archipelago and from Corsica to clarify the taxonomic status of these two isolated populations and to assess the morphological and molecular differentiation between them. For this purpose, we have analyzed several morphological traits and sequenced five molecular markers (EF1-α, ITS2, cox1, cox2, and cytb). We observed slight differences in the overall body size between females of both populations, and two well-defined geographical genetic lineages. This suggests the existence of two cryptic subspecies within S. t. tripectinata corresponding to two different island groups. Furthermore, we bring to light the necessity to provide new and updated morphological, molecular, and phylogenetic data to clarify the taxonomic status of S. tripectinata.

The main resistance mechanism of codling moth (Cydia pomonella) in the tree fruit area of Lleida (NE Spain) is multifunction oxidases (MFO). We studied the frequency of MFO-resistant adults captured by different lures, with and without pear ester, and flights in orchards under different crop management systems. The factor year affected codling moth MFO-resistance level, particularly in the untreated orchards, highlighting the great influence of codling moth migration on the spread of resistance in field populations. Chemical treatments and adult flight were also very important but mating disruption technique showed no influence. The second adult flight showed the highest frequency, followed by the first flight and the third flight. In untreated orchards, there were no significant differences in the frequency of MFO-resistant individuals attracted by Combo and BioLure. Red septa lures baited with pear ester (DA) captured sufficient insects only in the first generation of 2010, obtaining a significantly lower proportion of MFO-resistant adults than Combo and BioLure. In the chemically treated orchards, in 2009 BioLure caught a significantly lower proportion of MFO-resistant adults than Combo during the first and third flight, and also than DA during the first flight. No significant differences were found between the lures or flights in 2010. These results cannot support the idea of a higher attractiveness of the pear ester for MFO-resistant adults in the field but do suggest a high influence of the response to the attractant depending on the management of the orchard, particularly with regard to the use of chemical insecticides.

Bole is a small town situated just north of the 9th parallel N. lat. and about 15 miles from the Black Volta, which forms the western boundary of the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast.

Artificial neural networks (ANN) methodology, molecular analyses and comparative morphology of the male postabdomen were used successfully in parallel for species identification and resolution of some taxonomic problems concerning West Palaearctic species of the genus Tachina Meigen, 1803. Supervised feed-forward ANN with back-propagation of errors was applied on morphometric and qualitative characters to solve known taxonomic discrepancies. Background molecular analyses based on mitochondrial markers CO I, Cyt b, 12S and 16S rDNA and study of male postabdominal structures were published separately. All three approaches resolved taxonomic doubts with identical results in the following five cases: case 1, the four presently recognized subgenera of the genus Tachina were confirmed and the description of a new subgenus was recommended; case 2, the validity of a new boreo-alpine species (sp.n.) was confirmed; case 3, the previously supposed presence of T. casta (Rondani, 1859) in central Europe was not supported; case 4, West Palaearctic T. nupta (Rondani, 1859) was contrasted with East Palaearctic specimens from Japan, which seem to represent a valid species not conspecific with central European specimens; T. nupta needs detailed further study; case 5, T. nigrohirta (Stein, 1924) resurrected recently from synonymy with T. ursina Meigen, 1824 was confirmed as a valid species. This parallel application of three alternative methods has enabled the principle of ‘polyphasic taxonomy’ to be tested and verified using these separate results. For the first time, the value of using the ANN approach in taxonomy was justified by two non-mathematical methods (molecular and morphological).