It is posed that protein intake is tightly regulated by the human body. The role of sensory qualities in the satiating effects of protein, however, requires further clarification. Our objective was to determine the effect of within-meal protein content and taste on subsequent food choice and satiety. We used a cross-over design whereby sixty healthy, unrestrained subjects (twenty-three males and thirty-seven females) with a mean age of 20·8 (sd 2·1) years and a mean BMI of 21·5 (sd 1·6) kg/m2 were offered one of four isoenergetic preloads (rice meal) for lunch: two low in protein (about 7 % energy derived from protein) and two high in protein (about 25 % energy from protein). Both had a sweet and savoury version. At 30 min after preload consumption, subjects were offered an ad libitum buffet, consisting of food products differing in protein content (low/high) and taste (sweet/savoury). In addition, the computerised Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ) was run to assess several components of food reward. The results showed no effect of protein content of the preloads on subsequent food choice. There was an effect of taste; after eating the savoury preloads, choice and intake of sweet products were higher than of savoury products. No such preference was seen after the sweet preloads. No differences in satiety were observed. To conclude, within one eating episode, within-meal protein content in these quantities seems not to have an effect on subsequent food choice. This appears to be mostly determined by taste, whereby savoury taste exerts the strongest modulating effect. The results of the LFPQ provided insight into underlying processes.

Oestrogen replacement in ovariectomised (OVX) rats has been reported to attenuate food intake, especially during the light phase. To gain better insight into the central mechanism of oestrogen-induced reduction of food intake, we examined the effect of chronic oestrogen replacement in OVX rats on c-Fos expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and on food intake during the light and dark phases. Eight-week-old female rats were ovariectomised and implanted with either an oestradiol (E2) or a vehicle pellet (Veh) subcutaneously. The animals were housed in an environment with a 12 h light–12 h dark cycle with the lights on at 07.00 hours. The amount of spontaneous food intake relative to each animal's body weight was significantly less for the E2 group than for the Veh group during the light phase, but there were no differences shown between these groups during the dark phase. There were no differences shown in the number of c-Fos-immunoreactive cells in the SCN in the E2 group compared with the Veh group during the early dark phase (22.00 hours; Zeitgeber time 15.00 (ZT15)), but the number was significantly higher than in the Veh group during the early light phase (10.00 hours; ZT3). This finding suggests that chronic oestrogen replacement chronically enhances SCN activity, specifically during the light phase. The oestrogen-induced enhancement of SCN activity during the light phase is possibly involved in the light phase-specific attenuation of food intake by oestrogen replacement in OVX rats.

Diet-induced overweight rats exhibit delayed cutaneous healing; however, when receiving an obesogenic diet, some rats are susceptible to developing the overweight phenotype, whereas others are resistant. We investigated cutaneous healing in diet-induced obesity (DIO)-prone and diet-resistant (DR) rats. Male rats were fed with a standard (control) or a high-saturated fat (30 % fat, w/w) diet for 20 weeks. Then, the experimental group was subdivided into DIO (n 17) and DR (n 16) groups. An excision lesion was made, and the animals were killed 7 or 14 d later. The average body weight was 29 and 25 % higher in the DIO group compared with the C and DR groups. Retroperitoneal fat was higher in the DIO group than in the control and DR groups (518 and 92 %) and was higher in the DR group than in the control group (223 %). The DIO group presented glucose intolerance, and both the DIO and DR groups presented delayed wound contraction (50 %) and re-epithelialisation (20 %). Compared with the DR group, the DIO group displayed higher amounts of inflammatory cells as well as higher levels of lipid peroxidation (P < 0·05). Myofibroblastic differentiation and vessel remodelling were delayed in both the DIO and DR groups. Nitrite levels were lower in the DIO group (340 % less) than in the DR group. TNF-α expression was increased in the DIO group (130 %) compared with the DR group. Our results showed that DIO as well as DR rats present delays in cutaneous wound healing, even though the DR group does not have an overweight phenotype.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the indices of body size such as BMI, fat-free mass index (FFMI, FFM/height2), fat mass index (FMI, FM/height2), and body fat percentage (%BF), and physical activities assessed by the doubly-labelled water (DLW) method and an accelerometer in free-living Japanese adult women. We conducted a cross-sectional study in 100 female subjects ranging in age from 31 to 69 years. Subjects were classified in quartiles of BMI, FFMI, FMI and %BF. Daily walking steps and the duration of light to vigorous physical activity were simultaneously assessed by an accelerometer for the same period as the DLW experiment. Only physical activity-related energy expenditure (PAEE)/FFM and PAEE/body weight (BW) decreased in the highest quartile of BMI. Physical activity level, PAEE/FFM and PAEE/BW decreased in the highest quartile of FMI and %BF, whereas they were not different among quartiles of FFMI. Daily walking steps and the duration of moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activities decreased or tended to decrease in the highest quartile of FMI and %BF, but did not differ among quartiles of FFMI and BMI. These results clearly showed that Japanese adult women with higher fat deposition obviously had a low level of physical activities assessed by both the DLW method and accelerometry, but those with larger BMI had lower PAEE/FFM and PAEE/BW only. Our data suggest that the relationship between obesity and daily physical activities should be discussed using not only BMI but also FMI or %BF.

A charge made against feeding dry foods to cats is that the high carbohydrate (i.e. starch) content results in high blood glucose levels which over time may have detrimental health effects. The present study determined the post-meal concentrations of plasma glucose and insulin in adult cats (seven males and four females) and dogs (Labrador retrievers; four males and five females) fed dry diets with low-starch (LS), moderate-starch (MS) or high-starch (HS) levels. In a cross-over design with at least 7 d between the test meals, plasma glucose and insulin concentrations were measured following a single meal of a LS, MS and HS diet (209 kJ/kg bodyweight). Only the HS diet resulted in significant post-meal increases in plasma glucose concentration in cats and dogs although the time-course profiles were different between the species. In cats, plasma glucose concentration was significantly increased above the pre-meal concentration from 11 h until 19 h after the meal, while in dogs, a significant increase above baseline was seen only at the 7 h time point. Plasma insulin was significantly elevated in dogs 4–8 h following the MS diet and 2–8 h after the HS diet. In cats, plasma insulin was significantly greater than baseline from 3–7 and 11–17 h after the HS diet. The time lag (approximately 11 h) between eating the HS diet and the subsequent prolonged elevation of plasma glucose concentration seen in cats may reflect metabolic adaptations that result in a slower digestive and absorptive capacity for complex carbohydrate.

The site of intestinal fat delivery affects satiety and may affect food intake in humans. Animal data suggest that the length of the small intestine exposed to fat is also relevant. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether increasing the areas of intestinal fat exposure and the way it is exposed would affect satiety parameters and food intake. In the present single-blind, randomised, cross-over study, fifteen volunteers, each intubated with a naso-ileal tube, received four treatments on consecutive days. The oral control (control treatment) was a liquid meal (LM) containing 6 g fat ingested at t = 0 min, with saline infusion at t = 30–120 min. Experimental treatments were a fat-free LM at t = 0 min, with either 6 g oil delivered sequentially (2 g duodenal, t = 30–60 min; 2 g jejunal, t = 60–90 min; 2 g ileal, t = 90–120 min), simultaneously (2 g each to all sites, t = 30–120 min) or ileal only (6 g ileal, t = 30–120 min). Satiety parameters (hunger and fullness) and cholecystokinin (CCK), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY) secretion were measured until t = 180 min, when ad libitum food intake was assessed. Only the ileum treatment reduced food intake significantly over the control treatment. The ileum and simultaneous treatments significantly reduced hunger compared with the control treatment. Compared with control, no differences were observed for PYY, CCK and GLP-1 with regard to 180 min integrated secretion. Ileal fat infusion had the most pronounced effect on food intake and satiety. Increasing the areas of intestinal fat exposure only affected hunger when fat was delivered simultaneously, not sequentially, to the exposed areas. These results demonstrate that ileal brake activation offers an interesting target for the regulation of ingestive behaviour.

Higher adherence to a Mediterranean diet (MeDi) and n-3 PUFA may both contribute to decreased dementia risk, but the association between MeDi adherence and lipid status is unclear. The aim of the present study was to analyse the relationship between plasma fatty acids and MeDi adherence in French elderly community dwellers. The study population (mean age 75·9 years) consisted of 1050 subjects from Bordeaux (France) included in the Three-City cohort. Adherence to the MeDi (scored as 0–9) was computed from a FFQ and 24 h recall. The proportion of each plasma fatty acid was determined. Cross-sectional analysis of the association between plasma fatty acids and MeDi adherence was performed by multi-linear regression. After adjusting for age, sex, energy intake, physical activity, smoking status, BMI, plasma TAG and apoE-ɛ4 genotype, plasma palmitoleic acid was significantly inversely associated with MeDi adherence, whereas plasma DHA, the EPA+DHA index and total n-3 PUFA were positively associated with MeDi adherence. The n-6:n-3 PUFA, arachidonic acid (AA):EPA, AA:DHA and AA:(EPA+DHA) ratios were significantly inversely associated with MeDi adherence. Plasma EPA was positively associated with MeDi adherence only in apoE-ɛ4 non-carriers. There was no association between MeDi adherence and SFA and total MUFA. The present results suggest that the protective effect of the MeDi on cognitive functions might be mediated by higher plasma DHA and lower n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios.

Intake of added sugars, mainly fructose and sucrose, has been associated with risk factors for cognitive impairment, such as obesity, the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. The objective of this analysis was to examine whether habitual intakes of total sugars, added sugars, sugar-sweetened beverages or sweetened solid foods are associated with cognitive function. The present study included 737 participants without diabetes, aged 45–75 years, from the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study, 2004–9. Cognitive function was measured with a battery of seven tests: Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), word list learning, digit span, clock drawing, figure copying, and Stroop and verbal fluency tests. Usual dietary intake was assessed with a validated FFQ. Greater intakes of total sugars, added sugars and sugar-sweetened beverages, but not of sugar-sweetened solid foods, were significantly associated with lower MMSE score, after adjusting for covariates. Adjusted OR for cognitive impairment (MMSE score < 24) were 2·23 (95 % CI 1·24, 3·99) for total sugars and 2·28 (95 % CI 1·26, 4·14) for added sugars, comparing the highest with lowest intake quintiles. Greater intake of total sugars was also significantly associated with lower word list learning score. In conclusion, higher sugar intake appears to be associated with lower cognitive function, but longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the direction of causality.

Few studies have evaluated the relationship between the consumption of dietary folate and one-carbon metabolism-related nutrients and breast cancer risk defined by oestrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) status. The objective of the present study was to examine the associations between dietary folate, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and methionine intake and the risk of breast cancer by ER and PR status among Chinese women in Guangdong. A hospital-based case–control study was conducted from June 2007 to August 2008, with 438 cases and 438 age (5-year interval)- and residence (rural/urban)-matched controls. Dietary intake information was assessed using a validated FFQ administered through a face-to-face interview. Unconditional logistic regression models were used to calculate multivariate-adjusted OR and 95 % CI. A significant inverse association was found between dietary folate and vitamin B6 intake and breast cancer risk. The adjusted OR of the highest v. the lowest quartile were 0·32 (95 % CI 0·21, 0·49; Ptrend < 0·001) for dietary folate and 0·46 (95 % CI 0·30, 0·69; Ptrend < 0·001) for vitamin B6. No associations were observed for vitamin B12 and methionine intake. A significant inverse association between dietary folate intake and breast cancer risk was observed in all subtypes of ER and PR status. These findings suggest that dietary folate and vitamin B6 intakes were inversely associated with breast cancer risk. The inverse association did not differ by ER and/or PR status.

Plasma total cysteine (tCys) concentrations are associated with BMI. To study the relationship between tCys and BMI, we monitored the changes in serum concentrations of tCys and metabolically related compounds in sixty obese patients (BMI 50–60 kg/m2) from before to 1 year after either gastric bypass surgery (mean 30 % weight loss) or duodenal switch surgery (mean 41 % weight loss). A total of fifty-eight healthy persons (BMI 17–31 kg/m2) served as controls. Before surgery, obese patients had modestly (approximately 17 %) higher mean serum tCys, and markedly (>2-fold) higher glutamate concentrations, than controls (P ≤ 0·001 for both). Serial examinations after surgery revealed that gastric bypass patients had no change in tCys concentrations (P = 0·22), while duodenal switch patients showed a modest (approximately 12 %) but significant decrease in tCys (P < 0·001). Total homocysteine concentrations increased in duodenal switch patients but not in gastric bypass patients. Independent of surgery type, serum concentrations of methionine and cystathionine decreased (P < 0·05 for both), while serum glutathione and taurine remained stable. Glutamate concentrations declined, as did γ-glutamyltransferase activity (P < 0·001 for both). These results show that despite 30 % weight loss, and decreases in methionine, cystathionine and glutamate, there was no significant change in serum tCys in patients after gastric bypass surgery. The decrease in tCys in patients undergoing duodenal switch could be related to malabsorption. The present findings do not suggest that BMI is a causal determinant of plasma tCys.

Aqua feeds should be formulated to provide complete and balanced nutrition to achieve optimal health and growth in fish, including adequate levels of essential amino acids (EAA). There are few or no data relating to the EAA requirements for ornamental fish species, with the majority of quantitative data for these nutrients being available for commercially farmed fish. The determination of EAA requirements is usually established through dose–response studies, which can be costly and time consuming, especially if determining the requirement for many amino acids (AA). An alternative method for predicting the EAA of fish, which is also relatively fast and inexpensive, is the assessment of whole-body AA composition. A total of eight goldfish with a mean wet weight of 34·2 (sem 1·4) g were obtained as a result of a routine cull by breeders. The fish were freeze-dried and AA was content analysed by hydrolysis or performic ‘acid’ oxidation. EAA values ranged between 0·97 (sem 0·02) for tryptophan and 7·9 (sem 0·14) for lysine (g/100 g AA). Compositional data were also used to estimate the essential amino acid ratios of these fish. The findings are in agreement with those for juvenile common goldfish, suggesting that there are no differences in whole-body AA composition between juvenile and adult, or fancy and common goldfish. However, these indices do not provide a quantitative total amount of each AA required by the fish, but can be used proportionally to provide guidelines to formulate diets for ornamental species.

As recently described, adherence to the Mediterranean diet is associated with improved asthma control. However, evidence of how specific nutrients such as fatty acids and antioxidants may affect this relationship remains largely unknown. We aimed to examine the association between dietary intake of fatty acids and antioxidants and asthma control. A cross-sectional study was developed in 174 asthmatics, mean age of 40 (sd 15) years. Dietary intake was obtained by a FFQ, and nutritional content was calculated using Food Processor Plus™ software (ESHA Research, Inc., Salem, OR, USA). Good asthma control was defined by the combination of forced expiratory volume during the first second, exhaled NO (eNO) and Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ) score (control: forced expiratory volume in the first second ≥ 80 %; eNO ≤ 35 ppb; ACQ < 1·0, scale 0–6 score). Multiple linear and logistic regression models were performed to analyse the associations between nutrients and asthma outcomes, adjusting for confounders. A high n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio predicted high eNO, whereas high intakes of n-3 PUFA, α-linolenic acid (ALA) and SFA were associated with low eNO. Odds for controlled asthma improved along with an increased intake of n-3 PUFA (OR 0·14, 95 % CI 0·04, 0·45; P for trend = 0·001), SFA (OR 0·36, 95 % CI 0·13, 0·97; P for trend = 0·047) and ALA (OR 0·18, 95 % CI 0·06, 0·58; P for trend = 0·005). A high n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio increased the odds for uncontrolled asthma (OR 3·69, 95 % CI 1·37, 9·94; P for trend = 0·009), after adjusting for energy intake, sex, age, education and use of inhaled corticosteroids. Higher intakes of n-3 PUFA, ALA and SFA were associated with good asthma control, while the risk for uncontrolled asthma increased with a higher n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio. The present results introduce a protective effect of ALA in asthma control, independent of marine n-3 fatty acids, and provide a rationale to dietary intervention studies in asthma.

Higher vitamin D concentrations have been proposed as a protective ‘seasonal stimulus’ against influenza, and there are suggestions for associations with other aspects of respiratory health. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship of current vitamin D status (measured by 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 25(OH)D) with respiratory infections and lung function. We used cross-sectional data from 6789 participants in the nationwide 1958 British birth cohort who had measurements of 25(OH)D, lung function (forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC)) and respiratory infections available from the age of 45 years. In this population, the prevalence of respiratory infections had a strong seasonal pattern in the opposite direction to the pattern for 25(OH)D concentrations. Each 10 nmol/l increase in 25(OH)D was associated with a 7 % lower risk of infection (95 % CI 3, 11 %) after adjustment for adiposity, lifestyle and socio-economic factors. For FEV1 and FVC, each 10 nmol/l increase in 25(OH)D was associated with 8 (95 % CI 3, 13) ml and 13 (95 % CI 7, 20) ml higher volume, respectively, after controlling for covariates. Associations of 25(OH)D with FEV1 and FVC were only slightly attenuated after further adjustment for infection and other respiratory illness. In conclusion, vitamin D status had a linear relationship with respiratory infections and lung function. Randomised controlled trials are warranted to investigate the role of vitamin D supplementation on respiratory health and to establish the underlying mechanisms.