It is widely accepted that the gadfly petrels of the Macaronesian islands comprise three closely related and morphologically similar taxa, Petrodroma madeira from Madeira island, P. deserta (also treated as P. feae deserta) from Bugio and P. feae (also treated as P. feae feae) from Cape Verde Islands. However, the taxonomic rank of each taxon is not well defined, and has been subject to a long debate. Partial sequences of cytochrome b (893 bp) from 39 individuals (five from Madeira, 18 from nearby Bugio, and 16 from Fogo) and morphometric data from five characters from 102 individuals (74 from Bugio and 28 from Fogo in Cape Verde), were used to compare and estimate phylogenetic relationships and the taxonomic status of these petrels. In the phylogenetic analysis and sequence divergence estimation, we also include 23 sequences of 19 Pterodroma species available from GenBank. Our results show that Macaronesian gadfly petrels form a monophyletic clade. Birds from Bugio and Cape Verde are the most closely related taxa followed by those from Madeira. The group formed by the three taxa studied is closely related to Bermuda Petrel P. cahow and Black-capped Petrel P. hasitata. A hypothesis for the colonization of the islands is presented. The level of sequence divergence is sufficient to consider the populations of Bugio and Cape Verde as separate species. Reproductive isolation is supported by exclusive haplotypes and fixed changes. Despite the presence of some significant differences in bill and tarsus measurements, the two species seem to be morphologically similar because the great overlap of variation intervals in the measurements hinders identification. It therefore appears suitable for consideration as a cryptic species. An important conservation implication is that the world population of both species is very small; if treated as a full species, deserta on Bugio may qualify for uplisting to ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List.

The Bengal Florican is a ‘Critically Endangered’ bustard (Otididae) restricted to India, Nepal and southern Indochina. Fewer than 500 birds are estimated to remain in the Indian subcontinent, whilst the Indochinese breeding population is primarily restricted to grasslands surrounding the Tonle Sap lake, Cambodia. We conducted the first comprehensive breeding season survey of Bengal Florican within the Tonle Sap region (19,500 km2). During 2005/06 and 2006/07 we systematically sampled 1-km squares for territorial males. Bengal Florican were detected within 90 1-km squares at a mean density of 0.34 males km−2 which, accounting for unequal survey effort across grassland blocks, provides a mean estimate of 0.2 males km−2. Based on 2005 habitat extent, the estimated Tonle Sap population is 416 adult males (333–502 ± 95% CI), more than half of them in Kompong Thom province. Tonle Sap grasslands are rapidly being lost due to intensification of rice cultivation and, based on satellite images, we document declines of 28% grassland cover within 10 grassland blocks between January 2005 and March 2007. Based on mean 2005 population densities the remaining grassland may support as few as 294 adult male florican, a decline of 30% since 2005. In response to these habitat declines almost 350 km2 of grassland have been designated as protected areas, set aside for biodiversity and local livelihoods. Conservation activities in these areas include participatory land-use zoning, patrols reporting new developments to government officials, awareness-raising and incentive-led nest protection schemes.

Specially trained dogs are used to locate many threatened bird species in New Zealand during conservation management and research projects. Systematic searches were made in four forest patches in Northland where many Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli had been fitted with bands, wing tags, transponders or radio-transmitters over a 12-year period of experimental management. The percentage of subadult birds found by dogs increased in line with predictions from population models of the changing age structure of the population. The dogs independently found radio-tagged adults and subadults in close proportion to their known abundance. Dogs proved to be an excellent tool to determine the age structure of a kiwi population. With knowledge of the life history of the species involved, this information was used to make an accurate assessment of the conservation status of the study population of Brown Kiwi in Northland. Our results also support the recent downgrading of Little Spotted Kiwi Apteryx owenii from ‘Vulnerable’ to ‘Near Threatened’, which was based partly on healthy age ratios found during dog searches on Kapiti Island, rather than on results from a study of their breeding biology on the island which showed unsustainably low chick recruitment.

We conducted a 16-month country-wide survey to determine the status of the threatened Madagascar (Marsh) Harrier Circus macrosceles from 2005 to 2006. We searched for harriers in varying habitat types, focusing on marshes, grasslands and savannas, secondary forests and the edge of primary forests. We surveyed 68% of the districts of Madagascar which contain 71% of the potential harrier habitat throughout the country. We recorded 80 individuals of this sexually dimorphic raptor; 48 males and 32 females of which 71 were observed during the breeding season (June to December) and nine outside the breeding season (January to May). The Madagascar Harrier has a broad distribution of about 1,000 km north to south (Madagascar is about 1,500 km in length) and east to west, but at extremely low density. Fifty-three (69%) harriers were observed in high elevation marshes and grasslands above 1,100 m in the provinces of Mahajanga and Antananarivo during the breeding season. Three major threats to harriers, all human caused, were identified: the transformation of marshes to rice fields (all nests in lower elevation natural marshes), uncontrolled fires destroying nests (n = 7 nests lost in 2005 to fires), and human persecution by taking young from nests for a food source and killing adults due to their predatory nature. From our surveys in Madagascar and information from Comoro Islands, we estimate the global population to be 250–500 individuals suggesting the current Madagascar Harrier population is heading towards endangerment. The survival of the Madagascar Harrier in Madagascar is critically dependent on protecting the remaining natural marshes, which are an extremely limited and critically endangered habitat in Madagascar, with bordering grasslands.

The avifauna of the Mariana Islands, an archipelago in the western Pacific, faces the threats of rapid economic development and the spread of non-native species, particularly a devastating predator, Brown Tree Snake Boiga irregularis. In this paper, we examine the status and trends of the land bird fauna of Saipan Island based on three island-wide surveys conducted in 1982, 1997, and 2007. During this period, the human population on Saipan increased more than four-fold and much of the island has been developed. The surveys employed standard point-transect methods based on Distance Sampling. Remarkably, we found nearly all species of land birds - 11 native species and three introduced species - to be common or abundant. The exception was the Micronesian Megapode Megapodius laperouse, a historically rare species that was not observed on the 2007 survey, although it does persist on Saipan and other Mariana islands. A comparison of species densities among the three surveys showed that seven species, mainly fruit and seed-eaters, had increased and three species of insectivorous birds had decreased - Rufous Fantail Rhipidura rufifrons, Nightingale Reed-warbler Acrocephalus luscinia, and Golden White-eye Cleptornis marchei. Of these three, Nightingale Reed-warbler is listed as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List and as an Endangered Species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Reed-warbler densities on Saipan decreased by more than half between 1982 and 2007. Although point transect sampling worked well for this species, density estimates and trends assessment could be improved by reallocating sampling stations among habitats and by more frequent sampling.

The Giant Conebill Oreomanes fraseri is a specialist of high Andean Polylepis forest remnants. With the aid of radio-tracking and visual observations, the average 100% minimum convex polygon home range size of seven adult individuals was 7.15 ha. Range size decreased with increasing tree density, and for equal tree densities, it was larger in the study site with larger Polylepis fragments. Home ranges often comprised areas that were largely or entirely devoid of trees. Within home ranges, space use significantly varied with time of day, and this pattern tended to be largely consistent among days. Given the large extent of variation in size and structure already observed in this small sample of home ranges, we suggest that apart from the size, shape, structure and degree of isolation of the remaining forest patches, also their topographic location, and hence sun exposure, may be an important consideration when designing conservation strategies for Giant Conebill.

Over recent years, Spain has undergone a huge expansion in the number of wind farms, many of which extend across regions crossed by migratory birds that winter in the Iberian Peninsula and Africa. This paper explores the potential impact these structures have on the massive flow of birds along the western Pyrenean flyway. Ringing recoveries of migratory Wood Pigeons Columba palumbus were used in the study to depict the movements of migratory birds and these were then compared to the distribution of wind farms. The main flow of pigeons (50% of ringing recoveries) was concentrated in a belt 50 km wide. Although the wind farms were mainly distributed outside this central belt, they intercepted an adjacent sector where a considerable number of ringed pigeons (30%) were recorded. This means that the two central bands (100 km wide) accounted for around 80% of the total number of Wood Pigeons crossing the region. These results suggest the need for a scrupulous evaluation of the potential impact of wind farms on migratory birds along this flyway, particularly the cumulative effect on populations crossing the region regularly. In view of the rapid expansion of wind farms in northern Spain, enforcement of the application of EU regulations on preventive measures to protect migratory species is urgently needed.

The ‘Endangered’ Sakalava Rail Amaurornis olivieri is endemic to wetlands in western Madagascar, where it has been recorded between the Betsiboka river in the north and the Mangoky river in the south. Between August 2003 and November 2006, including dry and wet seasons, we surveyed 36 potentially suitable wetlands throughout its known range. We found Sakalava Rails at five sites: Lacs Kinkony, Ampandra, Amparihy, Sahapy and Mandrozo. At each site the population was small (12–39 individuals) and the highest density was 20 individuals km−2. We found up to 67 birds in each field visit and the total number of birds (sum of maxima at each site) seen was 100. We estimate the total population at the five sites to be 215 rails. We cannot confirm that the population lies within the range estimated in the current Red List (250–999 individuals), although this may yet be proven correct. The typical breeding habitat of Sakalava Rail is lotic marshes with a mixture of large areas of open water, reed Phragmites mauritianus and floating Salvinia hastata. The major threats to Sakalava Rail appear to be habitat loss caused by wetland conversion to rice fields and by fires, disturbance by fishermen and people from local villages, and hunting. Other processes that may alter the ecological character of wetlands and so affect their suitability for Sakalava Rails, such as hydrological change or the effects of exotic fish or vegetation, remain to be investigated.

The study area at Zait Bay, Egypt (c. 700 km2) is situated in the middle of the West Asian-East African migration flyway used by very large numbers of soaring migrants. At this site the corridor narrows into a bottleneck. There exist only very few bottlenecks of this magnitude in the world. Observations were performed at all hours between sunrise and sunset at 26 observation sites, situated 5 km apart. The northern part of the area under investigation (19 observation sites) was situated within the Gebel El Zeit IBA (criteria A1 and A4iv), while the southernmost part (8 observation sites) was outside. The overall evaluation has shown that 179,681 soaring birds including 122,454 storks and 36,976 raptors were observed in total. Within a radius of 2.5 km from each observation site 97,143 soaring birds including 59,308 storks and 30,489 raptors were observed during the 604 hours of observation. Eleven species were recorded in numbers that exceed 1% of their flyway populations. Of special concern regarding bird conservation are those birds resting or flying in the first 200 m of elevation. In total 6,624 soaring birds were seen resting (2,252 within a radius of 2.5 km). Thirty-three percent of the storks and 47% of the raptors were observed resting or flying at heights within the lowest 200 m. The median height of flying birds varied between 5 m (harriers) and 500 m (Common Crane Grus grus). According to the raw data, criteria for nomination of the area as an IBA (20,000 raptors and storks in one migration season, globally threatened species) were fully met outside the existing IBA. Also, to the south of the study area, very high numbers of migrants were confirmed by spontaneous, non-systematic observations. Accordingly, a change of the boundaries is suggested. The regional analysis, based on extrapolations, has to be regarded as a preliminary study. The analysis failed to show a geographical trend for any single species. The data from this study establish a high concentration of gliding and soaring birds in the study area, within and adjacent to the already designated IBA.

Swamp Francolin Francolinus gularis is endemic to the Indian sub-continent, being found in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. It is threatened with extinction and is listed as ‘Vulnerable’, mainly as a result of habitat degradation and loss. This study investigated the distribution, habitat use, threats and most appropriate method for surveying the species at Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in southeastern Nepal from February to July 2004. The most appropriate method, which recorded the highest number of birds (without double-counting), was identified as point counts undertaken early in the morning during the breeding season. The abundance estimate for the species was 15.5 ± 2.50 birds km−2. Habitat use, as compared with availability, differed significantly between seasons, with Woodland-Grassland and Wet Grassland preferred in the breeding season and summer. Dry Grassland and Woodland were preferred during the monsoon months. On average, 40.4 (± 15.6) people were recorded in the study area each day and there was a general trend for the number of birds to decrease with increasing numbers of people. Each day an average of 31.6 (± 16.7) livestock was recorded in the study area and more than 120 were regularly present throughout the eastern section, although there was no significant relationship between number of cattle and Swamp Francolin. We conclude that as long as the degree and distribution of anthropogenic pressures does not increase, the Swamp Francolin should survive at Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. However, as the species is reliant on different habitats in different seasons, deterioration in the quality or extent of either of these could have a serious impact on the species.

North-west Iberia is a crucial stopover region for European populations of Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca and Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata during their summer-autumn migration. Both species are almost completely insectivorous during breeding in Europe and wintering in sub-Saharan Africa, but are known to consume fleshy fruits during summer-autumn migration, though no detailed investigations have been carried out over long periods of time. In this study, the summer-autumn feeding ecology of Pied and Spotted Flycatchers in a stopover area in north-west Spain, with a landscape of hedgerows and irrigated meadows, was studied for five consecutive years (2002–2006). In general, the passage of both flycatcher species was noticeable from mid-August to the end of September, with a peak in the first ten days of September. The two flycatcher species consumed fruits throughout the stopover period in all years, with constant intensity of frugivory in time, though the importance of fruits was almost three times greater in the diet of Pied Flycatchers (c. 30% of feeding acts) than in that of Spotted Flycatchers (c. 10% of feeding acts). Both species preferred Dogwood Cornus sanguinea fruits, but also ate Elder Sambucus nigra berries and Bramble Rubus spp. drupelets. The high level of selection of Dogwood fruits was probably linked to their high lipid content, an essential nutrient for fattening in long-distance migrant passerines. Hedgerows and wood edges in north-west Iberia are rich in fleshy fruits but threatened by intensive farming. Their conservation and restoration are proposed because they seem to be high-quality stopover habitats for partially frugivorous passerines during summer-autumn migration.

Gurney's Pitta Pitta gurneyi was not seen in the wild for over 30 years before its rediscovery in a small area in southern Thailand in 1986. In 2003, it was found over a much larger area in southern Myanmar (Burma) after an even longer absence of records. This paper reports the results of recent research on both populations. In Myanmar, birds were found in a high proportion of visited sites, including sites up to 40 km further north than any previous records in the country. Occupied forest sites had a higher density of seedlings, saplings, bamboo and rattan than unoccupied forest sites, suggesting a preference for regenerating forest. There was no evidence of a decline in the species's likelihood of occurrence up to at least the highest visited altitude of 230 m. Maximum entropy models suggested a potential range size of between 3,200 and 5,800 km2 and the predicted range extended just over the border into Thailand, suggesting that birds might persist there. Population estimates for southern Myanmar ranged from 9,300 to 35,000 territories, with a mid-point estimate of 20,000 territories, based upon range sizes modelled from different parameters and a range of territory densities estimated from Thailand. The population in southern Thailand was estimated at between 15 and 20 territories in 2003, 2005 and 2007, and there was a reduction in the historic rate of forest loss in the core range over the same period, suggesting that long-term declines have been at least temporarily contained by recent conservation intervention. However, nesting success in Thailand was very low, due to heavy nest predation by cat snakes Boiga. Nests were usually built close to waterlogged areas and damp gullies, and nestlings were fed almost exclusively on earthworms. Occupied sites in Thailand had a higher density of seedlings, saplings, spiny palms and rattans, but sparser ground cover and a lower density of large trees and bamboo, than forests in Myanmar, indicating their secondary nature. Occupied and unoccupied sites in Myanmar were structurally more similar to each other than either was to occupied sites in Thailand. The results suggest that the species might inhabit a wider range of altitudes, slopes and forest types than previously thought, and so might persist in previously unsurveyed areas and might survive or even benefit from a degree of forest disturbance. However, the species's conservation-dependent status in Thailand and accelerating forest clearance in Myanmar suggest that forest protection measures are urgently needed to secure its long-term future.

The small size of many island populations of endangered birds, together with their high density, low genetic diversity and naivety to introduced pathogens, may render them vulnerable to disease epidemics. Such an outbreak occurred in an isolated population of threatened South Island Saddleback Philesturnus c. carunculatus on Motuara Island, New Zealand. In 2002, the population dropped from ~130 birds to ~60 birds, apparently from an outbreak of systemic coccidiosis. However, within three years the population had recovered to > 130 individuals. This appears to be the carrying capacity of the island as areas left vacant after the crash were re-occupied by the end of the third year. Reproductive success of saddlebacks was similar across the three years following the crash and there were no significant differences in clutch size, nesting success or fledgling mass as the population increased. In contrast, feather mite loads increased and leucocyte counts changed significantly in both adult and nestling saddlebacks as the population recovered, suggesting higher population densities may reduce immunocompetence. Although reproductive success did not appear directly affected by population size, our observations indicate increased levels of stress at high densities could render saddlebacks susceptible to recurring disease outbreaks.

The population of the Black-winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni has declined significantly during the course of the 20th century, resulting in a classification as ‘Near Threatened’ and ‘Endangered’ in the Global and European Red Data Books, respectively. Reasons for the decline are largely unknown due to a lack of information on the breeding ecology of the species. We studied breeding performance and habitat use of the Black-winged Pratincole in two areas in Kazakhstan and evaluated a new world population estimate. Colony size ranged from two to 180 pairs and differed significantly between the study areas. Mean breeding success was 1.30 ± 0.16 (mean ± SE) fledged chicks per breeding pair in Central Kazakhstan, and 0.59 ± 0.13 (mean ± SE) fledged chicks per breeding pair in NE Kazakhstan. Habitat types preferred were intensively grazed natural steppe, abandoned and fallow fields, shores of freshwater and brackish lakes and solonchaks (salt pans). Factors influencing habitat selection were quantified the first time for this species: the probability of occurrence of breeding colonies was highest near human settlements, within 3km of open water and where sward heights were low or intermediate, indicating a reliance on heavy grazing and water.

Using data from six surveys across the whole breeding range, we calculated a new world population estimate of 76,000–95,000 breeding pairs, which is substantially higher than previous estimates. We discuss colony size, habitat use and population trends in the light of changing landscape conditions in the steppe zone and suggest an increase in habitat available to Black-winged Pratincole due to an increase in the area of fallow fields and a change in grazing regimes since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The Wirebird Charadrius sanctaehelenae, a plover, is the only surviving bird species endemic to the South Atlantic Island of St Helena. The species is currently dependent on habitats that are wholly anthropogenic or extensively modified by human activity. A census carried out during 2005–2006 showed that the Wirebird has undergone a decline of more than 40% over a five-year period to a total of 235 individuals. The species now qualifies for re-classification as ‘Critically Endangered’. Vegetation surveys support the results of a previous study in suggesting that the decline may be associated with degradation of the Wirebird's favoured grassland habitat due to reduction of livestock numbers. Predation by introduced mammals and birds is also likely to be a factor but this remains unquantified. The Wirebird may face additional threats to its habitat in the future unless potential tourism-related development associated with the proposed construction of an airport on the island is closely regulated.

Over 1,200 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) have been identified in Africa, each meeting at least one of four objective criteria that identify it as an area of high conservation importance for birds. Despite their biodiversity value, many IBAs are threatened by habitat degradation and a high proportion lack legal protection. We integrate an inventory of these IBAs with remote sensing data to identify patterns that could be used to assess priorities for monitoring and conservation. Land cover composition in IBAs differed significantly from that in buffer zones of the same area immediately surrounding them and was significantly more homogeneous. Agriculture and deforestation were the most prevalent threats to IBAs, particularly in IBAs containing a high proportion of dense forest or shrub. Human population density within IBAs was no lower than that immediately outside IBAs, and was around three times higher than the average for sub-Saharan Africa. However, projected human population growth was lower than the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with the projected increase greatest in IBAs with a high proportional cover of dense forest and mosaic woodland and lowest in IBAs with a higher grassland component. Fifty seven percent of IBAs fell within or overlapped Protected Areas, though this percentage differed between different categories of IBA. IBAs that were included within Protected Areas supported a greater number of globally threatened bird species and contained proportionally more dense forest, woodland and shrub than IBAs falling outside Protected Areas. IBAs outside Protected Areas contained a high proportion of mosaic woodland and open water, suggesting that such habitats are under-protected in Africa. We suggest that because the most prevalent threats to IBAs involve changes in land cover that could be detected from satellites, remote sensing could play an important role in the monitoring of African IBAs. This would permit monitoring of a wider range of sites than is possible solely by conventional, ground-based approaches.

The status of the ‘Endangered’ Fuerteventura Stonechat Saxicola dacotiae, a western Palearctic single island endemic, was assessed 22 years after the first population estimate of 1,300–1,700 individuals was made by Bibby and Hill (1987). Using GIS and Distance Sampling methodologies, the population on Fuerteventura in 2008 was estimated at 1,035 birds (832–1,287) with the species more abundant on hillsides than in gullies. Within the island's three main massifs (i.e. north, west and south) the highest encounter rate was recorded in the northern massif. This study supports the category of ‘Endangered’ for this species, which does face the obvious threat from development, particularly in the south of the island. The species is also on the endangered list nationally (Spain) and in Europe but has not as yet been evaluated by the Canarian Government. I suggest, based on results of this study, that serious effort should be put in to improving knowledge of the distribution range of this endemic (either by modelling or by systematic visits to sites). An official monitoring programme should be developed and implemented with special attention paid to the three main mountain ranges of this island and particularly to the southern massif which is suffering the highest rate of habitat loss.

Fragmentation of continuous habitat blocks into small, isolated patches may cause gradual replacement of habitat specialists by generalists and edge-dwelling species, thereby altering trophic interactions within communities. When fragmentation progressively increases the edge-to-interior ratio of forest remnants, forest birds are typically exposed to higher levels of nest predation, especially so near forest edges. However, the strength and direction of this ‘edge effect on nest predation’ may vary with predator communities, which in turn can be affected by habitat type, landscape structure and geographical location. We studied avian nest predation in two isolated forest fragments in the Taita Hills of southeast Kenya, where small mammals, rather than birds, dominate predator communities. The use of artificial ground nests allowed us to reduce variation in laying date and microhabitat use, which are known to affect predation on natural nest in the study area. Predation rates did not increase near the forest boundary, but instead, were higher in the forest interior of one of the fragments. Such inverse edge effects may be caused by forest-dependent small mammals or snakes that can remove bird eggs. Although inverse edge effects may be more common in East African tropical forests than previously thought, and should therefore be taken into account when drafting conservation plans, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Further study of the population dynamics of small mammals and snakes, and their relative impact on nest predation in fragmented habitats, is therefore required.

The Grey-necked Picathartes Picathartes oreas, considered ‘Vulnerable’, is an enigmatic ground-dwelling bird endemic to the central African equatorial rainforest and belongs to a family of only two species. Its distribution extends to the two Endemic Bird Areas within Cameroon (Guinea Congo forest biome and Cameroon mountain arc) and its population is thought to be in decline throughout its range due to increasing habitat fragmentation and disturbance. During March–April 2003 and June and October 2007 we surveyed Grey-necked Picathartes in the north-western region of the Mbam Minkom Mountain Forest. In January–March 2006 we surveyed the entire mountain range and found 90 breeding and 24 potential breeding sites, mostly located on the western slopes. From the complete survey, we estimated the population at 44 breeding individuals. Populations were highest in the north-west region but had apparently declined from 40 breeding individuals in 2003 to 20 in 2007. This region accounted for 41% of the entire population on the mountain range during the 2006 survey. The Mbam Minkom/Kala Important Bird Area was designated based on the presence of Grey-necked Picathartes but is under high pressure of imminent destruction from agricultural encroachment and illegal timber exploitation. These results have important implications for decision making in delimiting forest boundaries and core areas for protection in the development of management plans. We suggest possible remedial actions, appropriate repeatable methods for future monitoring and opportunities for community involvement in the management and conservation of the site.