Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-b4m5d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-17T00:47:53.321Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Thinking in and about time: A dual systems perspective on temporal cognition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 September 2018

Christoph Hoerl Open the ORCID record for Christoph Hoerl [Opens in a new window]  and
Teresa McCormack
Christoph Hoerl
Affiliation:
Department of Philosophy, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 8UW, United [email protected]://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/philosophy/people/hoerl/
Teresa McCormack
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, BelfastBT9 5BN, Northern Ireland, United [email protected]://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/persons/teresa-mccormack(024a3045-accf-42b9-8eba-65bb8b2bf6a7).html
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We outline a dual systems approach to temporal cognition, which distinguishes between two cognitive systems for dealing with how things unfold over time – a temporal updating system and a temporal reasoning system – of which the former is both phylogenetically and ontogenetically more primitive than the latter, and which are at work alongside each other in adult human cognition. We describe the main features of each of the two systems, the types of behavior the more primitive temporal updating system can support, and the respects in which it is more limited than the temporal reasoning system. We then use the distinction between the two systems to interpret findings in comparative and developmental psychology, arguing that animals operate only with a temporal updating system and that children start out doing so too, before gradually becoming capable of thinking and reasoning about time. After this, we turn to adult human cognition and suggest that our account can also shed light on a specific feature of humans’ everyday thinking about time that has been the subject of debate in the philosophy of time, which consists in a tendency to think about the nature of time itself in a way that appears ultimately self-contradictory. We conclude by considering the topic of intertemporal choice, and argue that drawing the distinction between temporal updating and temporal reasoning is also useful in the context of characterizing two distinct mechanisms for delaying gratification.

Keywords

animal cognitioncognitive developmentdual systemsmental time travelmetaphysics of timeplanningintertemporal choicetemporal reasoningtense
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 42 , 2019 , e244
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aristotle, (1984) On memory (Beare, J. I., trans.). In: The complete works of Aristotle: The revised Oxford translation, vol. 1, ed. Barnes, J., pp. 714–20. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Atance, C. M., Louw, A. & Clayton, N. S. (2015) Thinking ahead about where something is needed: New insights about episodic foresight in preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 129:98–109. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.09.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aveni, A. (1990) Empires of time: Calendars, clock and cultures. Tauris.Google Scholar
Babb, S. J. & Crystal, J. D. (2006) Episodic-like memory in the rat. Current Biology 16(13):1317–21. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.05.025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardon, A. (2013) A brief history of the philosophy of time. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199976454.001.0001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barr, R., Dowden, A. & Hayne, H. (1996) Developmental changes in deferred imitation by 6- to 24-month-old infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 19(2):159–70. doi:10.1016/s0163-6383(96)90015-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, P. J. (2007) Recall in infancy: A neurodevelopmental account. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16(3):142–46. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00492.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, P. J., Hertsgaard, L. A., Dropik, P. & Daly, B. P. (1998) When even arbitrary order becomes important: Developments in reliable temporal sequencing of arbitrarily ordered events. Memory 6(2):165–98. doi:10.1080/741942074.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, P. J. & Mandler, J. M. (1989) One thing follows another: Effects of temporal structure on 1- to 2-year-olds’ recall of events. Developmental Psychology 25(2):197–206. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.2.197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, P. J., Wenner, J. A., Dropik, P. L. & Wewerka, S. S. (2000) Parameters of remembering and forgetting in the transition from infancy to early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 65(4):i–vi, 1–213. doi:10.1111/1540-5834.00104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, J. (1964) Rationality: An essay towards an analysis. Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Benoit, R. G., Gilbert, S. J. & Burgess, P. W. (2011) A neural mechanism mediating the impact of episodic prospection on farsighted decisions. Journal of Neuroscience 31(18):6771–79. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.6559-10.2011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergson, H. (1911) Matter and memory (Paul, N. M. & Palmer, W. S., trans.). Allen and Unwin. doi:10.1037/13803-000.Google Scholar
Blything, L. P. & Cain, K. (2016) Children's processing and comprehension of complex sentences containing temporal connectives: The influence of memory on the time course of accurate responses. Developmental Psychology 52(10):1517–29. doi:10.1037/dev0000201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blything, L. P., Davies, R. & Cain, K. (2015) Young children's comprehension of temporal relations in complex sentences: The influence of memory on performance. Child Development 86(6):1922–34. doi:10.1111/cdev.12412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boroditsky, L. (2011) How languages construct time. In: Space, time and number in the brain, ed. Dehaene, S. & Brannon, E., pp. 333–41. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyer, P. (2008) Evolutionary economics of mental time travel? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12(6):219–24. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.03.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braddon-Mitchell, D. & Miller, K. (2017) On time and the varieties of science. In: Time of nature and the nature of time, ed. Bouton, C. & Huneman, P., pp. 67–85. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53725-2_5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, W. E. & Holzapfel, C. M. (2010) What season is it anyway? Circadian tracking vs. photoperiodic anticipation in insects. Journal of Biological Rhythms 25(3):155–65. doi:10.1177/0748730410365656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buhusi, C. V. & Meck, W. H. (2005) What makes us tick? Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6(10):755–65. doi:10.1038/nrn1764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulley, A., Henry, J. & Suddendorf, T. (2016) Prospection and the present moment: The role of episodic foresight in intertemporal choices between immediate and delayed rewards. Review of General Psychology 20(1):29–47. doi:10.1037/gpr0000061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, P., Russell, C. & Russell, J. (2015) Preschool children's proto-episodic memory assessed by deferred imitation. Memory 23(8):1172–92. doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.963625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Busby-Grant, J. & Suddendorf, T. (2009) Preschoolers begin to differentiate the times of events from throughout the lifespan. European Journal of Developmental Psychology 6(6):746–62. doi:10.1080/17405620802102947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busby-Grant, J. & Suddendorf, T. (2011) Production of temporal terms by 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 26(1):87–95. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.05.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callender, C. (2017) What makes time special? Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198797302.001.0001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, J. (1996) Human vs. animal time. In: Time, internal clocks and movement, ed. Pastor, M. A. & Artieda, J., pp. 115–26. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/S0166-4115(96)80055-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carnap, R. (1963) Intellectual autobiography. In: The philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, ed. Schilpp, P. A., pp. 3–84. Open Court.Google Scholar
Carroll, S. (2010) From eternity to here: The quest for the ultimate theory of time. Oneworld.Google Scholar
Cheke, L. G. & Clayton, N. S. (2012) Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) overcome their current desires to anticipate two distinct future needs and plan for them appropriately. Biology Letters 8(2):171–75. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, M. K. (2013) The effect of language on economic behavior: Evidence from savings rates, health behaviors, and retirement assets. American Economic Review 103(2):690–731. doi:10.1257/aer.103.2.690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clayton, N. S., Bussey, T. J. & Dickinson, A. (2003a) Can animals recall the past and plan for the future? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4(8):685–91. doi:10.1038/nrn1180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, N. S. & Dickinson, A. (1998) Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature 395(6699):272–74. doi:10.1038/26216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clayton, N. S., Yu, K. S. & Dickinson, A. (2003b) Interacting cache memories: Evidence for flexible memory use by Western Scrub-Jays (Aphelocoma californica). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 29(1):14–22. doi:10.1037//0097-7403.29.1.14.Google Scholar
Correia, S. P. C., Dickinson, A. & Clayton, N. S. (2007) Western scrub-jays anticipate future needs independently of their current motivational state. Current Biology 17(10):856–61. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craver, C. F., Kwan, D., Steindam, C. & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2014b) Individuals with episodic amnesia are not stuck in time. Neuropsychologia 57:191–95. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.03.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cromer, R. F. (1971) The development of the ability to decenter in time. British Journal of Psychology 62(3):353–65. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1971.tb02046.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Hevia, M. D., Izard, V., Coubart, A., Spelke, E. S. & Streri, A. (2014) Representations of space, time, and number in neonates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111(13):4809–13. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323628111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennett, D. C. (1969) Content and consciousness. Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Dufour, V. & Sterck, E. H. M. (2008) Chimpanzees fail to plan in an exchange task but succeed in a tool-using procedure. Behavioural Processes 79(1):19–27. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2008.04.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eacott, M. J., Easton, A. & Zinkivskay, A. (2005) Recollection in an episodic-like memory task in the rat. Learning & Memory 12(3):221–23. doi:10.1101/lm.92505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, J. S. T. & Stanovich, K. E. (2013) Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science 8(3):223–41. doi:10.1177/1745691612460685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falk, A. (2003) Time plus the whoosh and whiz. In: Time, tense, and reference, ed. Jokić, A. & Smith, Q., pp. 211–50. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Fivush, R. (2011) The development of autobiographical memory. Annual Review of Psychology 62:559–82. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraisse, P. (1964) The psychology of time. Eyre & Spottiswoode.Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (1982) Conventional time concepts and children's structuring of time. In: The developmental psychology of time, ed. Friedman, W. J., pp. 171–208. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (1991) The development of children's memory for the time of past events. Child Development 62(1):139–55. doi:10.2307/1130710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (2000) The development of children's knowledge of the times of future events. Child Development 71(4):913–32. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, W. J. (2001) Memory processes underlying humans’ chronological sense of the past. In: Time and memory: Issues in philosophy and psychology, ed. Hoerl, C. & McCormack, T., pp. 139–67. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (2003) The development of a differentiated sense of the past and future. In: Advances in child development and behaviour, vol. 31, ed. Kail, R. V., pp. 232–72. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J., Gardner, A. G. & Zubin, N. R. E. (1995) Children's comparisons of the recency of two events from the past year. Child Development 66(4):970–83. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00916.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, W. J. & Kemp, S. (1998) The effects of elapsed time and retrieval on young children's judgments of the temporal distances of past events. Cognitive Development 13(3):335–67. doi:10.1016/s0885-2014(98)90015-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galton, A. (2011) Time flies but space does not: Limits to the spatialisation of time. Journal of Pragmatics 43(3):695–703. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gell, A. (1992) The anthropology of time: Cultural constructions of temporal maps and images. Berg.Google Scholar
Gelman, S. A. (2006) Naive theories, development of. In: Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, ed. Nadel, L.. Wiley. doi:10.1002/0470018860.s00520.Google Scholar
Grondin, S. (2010) Timing and time perception: a review of recent behavioral and neuroscience findings and theoretical directions. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics 72(3):561–82. doi:10.3758/APP.72.3.561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harner, L. (1980) Comprehension of past and future reference revisited. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 29(1):170–82. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(80)90099-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harner, L. (1982) Talking about the past and future. In: The developmental psychology of time, ed. Friedman, W. J., pp. 141–70. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hayne, H., Gross, J., McNamee, S., Fitzgibbon, O. & Tustin, K. (2011) Episodic memory and episodic foresight in 3- and 5-year-old children. Cognitive Development 26(4):343–55. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.09.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoerl, C. (2008) On being stuck in time. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 7(4):485–500. doi:10.1007/s11097-008-9089-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoerl, C. & McCormack, T. (2005) Joint reminiscing as joint attention to the past. In: Joint attention: Communication and other minds: Issues in philosophy and psychology, ed. Eilan, N., Hoerl, C., McCormack, T., & Roessler, J., pp. 260–86. Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245635.003.0012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howe, M. L. & Courage, M. L. (1997) The emergence and early development of autobiographical memory. Psychological Review 104(3):499–523. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.3.499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hudson, J. A. & Mayhew, E. M. Y. (2011) Children’s temporal judgments for autobiographical past and future events. Cognitive Development 26(4):331–42. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.09.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ismael, J. (2017) Passage, flow and the logic of temporal perspectives. In: Time of nature and the nature of time, ed. Bouton, C. & Huneman, P., pp. 23–38. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53725-2_2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabadayi, C. & Osvath, M. (2017) Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering. Science 357(6347):202–204. doi:10.1126/science.aam8138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D. (2011) Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Kaller, C. P., Rahm, B., Spreer, J., Mader, I. & Unterrainer, J. M. (2008) Thinking around the corner: The development of planning abilities. Brain and Cognition 67(3):360–70. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.02.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keven, N. (2016) Events, narratives and memory. Synthese 193(8):2497–2517. doi:10.1007/s11229-015-0862-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leininger, L. (2015) Presentism and the myth of passage. Australasian Journal of Philosophy 93(4):724–39. doi:10.1080/00048402.2015.1007463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, H. & Epstein, L. H. (2014) Living in the moment: effects of time perspective and emotional valence of episodic thinking on delay discounting. Behavioral Neuroscience 128(1):12–19. doi:10.1037/a0035705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lohse, K., Kalitschke, T., Ruthmann, K. & Rakoczy, H. (2015) The development of reasoning about the temporal and causal relations among past, present, and future events. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 138:54–70. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.04.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahr, J. B. & Csibra, G. (2018) Why do we remember? The communicative function of episodic memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 41:e1. doi:10.1017/S0140525X17000012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markus, H. & Nurius, P. (1986) Possible selves. American Psychologist 41(9):954–69. doi:10.1037//0003-066x.41.9.954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G. (2018) “First, I will get the marbles.” Children's foresight abilities in a modified spoon task. Cognitive Development 45:152–61. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2017.07.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G., Atance, C. M. & Caza, J. (2017) Did the popsicle melt? Preschoolers’ performance in an episodic-like memory task. Memory 25(9):1260–71. doi:10.1080/09658211.2017.1285940.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarty, M. E., Clifton, R. K., & Collard, R. R. (1999) Problem solving in infancy: The emergence of an action plan. Developmental Psychology 35(4):1091–1101. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.4.1091.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McColgan, K. L. & McCormack, T. (2008) Searching and planning: Young children's reasoning about past and future event sequences. Child Development 79(5):1477–97. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01200.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCormack, T. (2001) Attributing episodic memory to animals and children. In: Time and memory: Issues in philosophy and psychology, ed. Hoerl, C. & McCormack, T., pp. 285–313. Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
McCormack, T. (2015) The development of temporal cognition. In: Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, vol. 2: Cognitive processes (7th ed.), ed. Lerner, R. M., Liben, L. S., & Mueller, U., pp. 624–70. Wiley-Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy215.Google Scholar
McCormack, T. & Hanley, M. (2011) Children's reasoning about the temporal order of past and future events. Cognitive Development 26(4):299–314. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.10.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCormack, T. & Hoerl, C. (1999) Memory and temporal perspective: The role of temporal frameworks in memory development. Developmental Review 19:154–82. doi:10.1006/drev.1998.0476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCormack, T. & Hoerl, C. (2001) The child in time: Temporal concepts and self-consciousness in the development of episodic memory. In: The self in time: Developmental perspectives, ed. Moore, C. & Lemmon, K., pp. 203–27. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
McCormack, T. & Hoerl, C. (2005) Children's reasoning about the causal significance of the temporal order of events. Developmental Psychology 41(1):54–63. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCormack, T. & Hoerl, C. (2007) Young children's reasoning about the order of past events. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 98(3):168–83. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.06.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCormack, T. & Hoerl, C. (2017) The development of temporal concepts: Learning to locate events in time. Timing & Time Perception 5(3–4):297–327. doi:10.1163/22134468-00002094.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McTaggart, J. E. (1908) The unreality of time. Mind 17(4):457–74. doi:10.1093/mind/XVII.4.457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metcalfe, J. & Mischel, W. (1999) A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review 106(1):3–19. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.1.3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulcahy, N. J. & Call, J. (2006) Apes save tools for future use. Science 312(5776):1038–40. doi:10.1126/science.1125456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, K. (1996) Language in cognitive development: The emergence of the mediated mind. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osvath, M. & Osvath, H. (2008) Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and orangutan (Pongo abelii) forethought: Self-control and pre-experience in the face of future tool use. Animal Cognition 11(4):661–74. doi:10.1007/s10071-008-0157-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oyserman, D. & James, L. (2011) Possible identities. In: Handbook of identity theory and research, ed. Schwartz, S., Luyckx, K., & Vignoles, V., pp. 117–45. Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pathman, T., Larkina, M., Burch, M. M. & Bauer, P. J. (2013) Young children's memory for the times of personal past events. Journal of Cognition and Development 14(1):120–40. doi:10.1080/15248372.2011.641185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peacocke, C. (2017) Temporal perception, magnitudes and phenomenal externalism. In: The Routledge handbook of philosophy of temporal experience, ed. Phillips, I., pp. 213–24. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perner, J. (1991) Understanding the representational mind. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Peters, J. & Büchel, C. (2010) Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions. Neuron 66(1):138–48. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, C. (2002) Children's long-term memory for autobiographical events. Developmental Review 22(3):370–402. doi:10.1016/s0273-2297(02)00007-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piaget, J. (1969) The child's conception of time (Pomerans, A. J., trans.). Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Landry, A. M., Theall, L. A., Clark, B. R. & Castille, C. M. (1999) Development of young children's understanding that the recent past is causally bound to the present. Developmental Psychology 35(6):1426–39. doi:10.1037 /0012-1649.35.6.1426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, H. (2011) The flow of time. In: The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Time, ed. Callender, C., pp. 276–311. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199298204.003.0010.Google Scholar
Prosser, S. (2006) Temporal metaphysics in Z-land. Synthese 149(1):77–96. doi:10.1007/s11229-004-6249-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyykkönen, P. & Järvikivi, J. (2012) Children and situation models of multiple events. Developmental Psychology 48(2):521–29. doi:10.1037/a0025526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raby, C. R., Alexis, D. M., Dickinson, A. & Clayton, N. S. (2007) Planning for the future by western scrub-jays. Nature 445(7130):919–21. doi:10.1038/nature05575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Read, D., Frederick, S., Orsel, B. & Rahman, J. (2005) Four score and seven years from now: The date/delay effect in temporal discounting. Management Science 51(9):1326–35. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1050.0412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redshaw, J. (2014) Does metarepresentation make human mental time travel unique? Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science 5(5):519–31. doi:10.1002/wcs.1308.Google ScholarPubMed
Redshaw, J. & Suddendorf, T. (2016) Children's and apes’ preparatory responses to two mutually exclusive possibilities. Current Biology 26(13):1758–62. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Redshaw, J., Taylor, A. H. & Suddendorf, T. (2017) Flexible planning in ravens? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 21(11):821–22. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2017.09.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, W. A. (2002) Are animals stuck in time? Psychological Bulletin 128(3):473–89. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.128.3.473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovee-Collier, C. (1999) The development of infant memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science 8(3):80–85. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rovelli, C. (2018) The order of time. Riverhead Books.Google Scholar
Russell, J., Alexis, D. & Clayton, N. (2010) Episodic future thinking in 3-to 5-year-old children: The ability to think of what will be needed from a different point of view. Cognition 114(1):56–71. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J., Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. & Meltzoff, A. N. (2011) What can what-when-where (www) binding tasks tell us about young children's episodic foresight? Theory and two experiments. Cognitive Development 26(4):356–70. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.09.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sachs, J. (1983) Talking about the there and then: The emergence of displaced reference in parent-child discourse. In: Children's language, vol. 4, ed. Nelson, K. E., pp. 1–28. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Salwiczek, L. H., Watanabe, A. & Clayton, N. S. (2010) Ten years of research into avian models of episodic-like memory and its implications for developmental and comparative cognition. Behavioural Brain Research 215(2):221–34. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.06.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skow, B. (2011) Experience and the passage of time. Philosophical Perspectives 25(1):359–87. doi:10.1111/j.1520-8583.2011.00220.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloman, S. A. (1996) The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 119(1):3–22. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, E. R. & DeCoster, J. (2000) Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4(2):108–31. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0402_01.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stich, S. P. (1978) Beliefs and subdoxastic states. Philosophy of Science 45(4):499–518. doi:10.1086/288832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suddendorf, T. & Corballis, M. C. (2007a) The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 30(3):299–313. doi:10.1017/s0140525X07001975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suddendorf, T. & Corballis, M. C. (2010) Behavioural evidence for mental time travel in nonhuman animals. Behavioural Brain Research 215(2):292–98. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.11.044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tecwyn, E. C., Thorpe, S. K. S. & Chappell, J. (2014) Development of planning in 4- to 10-year-old children: Reducing inhibitory demands does not improve performance. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 125:85–101. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.02.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tillman, K. A., Marghetis, T., Barner, D. & Srinivasan, M. (2017) Today is tomorrow's yesterday: Children's acquisition of deictic time words. Cognitive Psychology 92:87–100. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.10.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tulving, E. (2005) Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human? In: The missing link in cognition, ed. Terrace, H. S. & Metcalfe, J., pp. 3–56. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Weist, R. M. (1989) Time concepts in language and thought: Filling the Piagetian void between two and five years. In: Time and human cognition: A life-span perspective. Advances in psychology, vol. 59, ed. Levin, T. & Zakay, D., pp. 63–118. Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weist, R. M. & Buczowska, E. (1987) The emergence of temporal adverbs in child Polish. First Language 7:217–29. doi:10.1177/014272378700702105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weist, R. M. & Zevenbergen, A. A. (2008) Autobiographical memory and past time reference. Language Learning and Development 4(4):291–308. 10.1080/15475440802293490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch-Ross, M. K. (2001) Personalizing the temporally extended self: Evaluative self-awareness and the development of autobiographical memory. In: The self in time: Developmental perspectives, ed. Moore, C. & Lemmon, K., pp. 97–120. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Zentall, T. R. (2005) Animals may not be stuck in time. Learning and Motivation 36(2):208–25. doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2005.03.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, D. W. (2005) The A-theory of time, the B-theory of time, and “taking tense seriously.” Dialectica 59(4):401–57. doi:10.1111/j.1746-8361.2005.01041.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar