The effects of food and/or water deprivation at different ambient temperatures (7 or 35 °C) on stress hormone release in sheep (n = 8), were studied to provide background data for research into the effects of road transport. Blood samples were taken from catheterized animals at the start and, at 6h intervals, during 48h tests in an environmental chamber. Cortisol release was unaffected by temperature or deprivation state but was stimulated by introduction to the chamber. Prolactin secretion showed a similar tendency and levels of this hormone were generally higher in the first test, whichever chamber was used. Heat exposure also had a prolonged stimulatory effect on prolactin release, especially in the first test. Growth hormone concentrations were rather variable but tended to be greatest when the animals were deprived of food. Measurements of plasma osmolality indicated that sheep remained in water balance, even when water was withheld for 48h, unless they had access to food. The results suggest that under laboratory conditions, and over a wide thermal range, withholding food and water for 48h does not induce Cortisol or prolactin release in sheep. However, exposure to novel situations seems to have a stimulatory effect.

The handling of cattle during unloading (n = 39) and movement to slaughter (n = 163) was observed at a commercial slaughterhouse. Most potentially traumatic events and handling events occurred while the cattle were in the race. During the initial 3 hours in the lairage pen, cattle from markets (n = 28) spent significantly more time drinking than those sent to slaughter direct from farms (n = 11; P < 0.05). Most cattle had bruises (99%; η = 181), but there was no difference between the occurrence of bruising in cattle direct from farms and those from markets. Bruise score was not affected by the distance transported from farms 18-201km (11-125 miles). However, cattle from markets > 64km (>40 miles) from the slaughterhouse had greater bruise scores than those from nearer markets 0.8-64km (0.5-40 miles) (P <0.01). No correlations were found between potentially traumatic events at the slaughterhouse and the occurrence of bruising. Plasma total protein concentration and plasma creatine kinase activity in blood collected at exsanguination (n = 170) was significantly greater in cattle from markets than in those from farms (P < 0.05), but there was no difference in plasma osmolality and packed cell volume (PCV). Cattle from distant markets > 129km (>80 miles) had higher PCV and plasma total protein concentration than those from markets within 129km (80 miles) (P <0.05). The overall results suggest that cattle from markets, particularly those transported for a distance greater than 64km (40 miles), would benefit from greater access to water at the market and from improved methods of handling and transport prior to arrival at the slaughterhouse.

The scientific study of animal welfare has generated a welter of complex, equivocal and often contradictory results. Consequently, there is little agreement about how impairment of welfare should be measured. While some solutions to this have been suggested, these have usually relied on more sophisticated versions of, or more control over, existing measures. However, we argue that the difficulties arise because of questionable assumptions in the definition and measurement of welfare, in particular the measurement of suffering and the assumed importance of individual well-being. We contend that welfare can be interpreted only in terms of what natural selection has designed an organism to do and how circumstances impinge on its functional design. Organisms are designed for self-expenditure and the relative importance of self-preservation and survival, and the concomitant investment of time and resources in different activities, varies with life history strategy. The traditional notions of coping and stress are anthropomorphisms based on homeostatic mechanisms of self-preservation in a long-lived species. Suffering-like states are viewed as generalized subjective states that are geared to avoiding deleterious circumstances with which the organism does not have specific adaptive mechanisms to deal. Attempts to measure suffering-like states directly are likely to remain inconclusive, at least for the foreseeable future, because such states are private and subjective, may take many forms fundamentally different from our own and are likely to depend on the operation of phenotype-limited priorities and decision rules. However, measuring the impact of circumstances on functional design via the organism ‘s decision rules provides a practicable means of giving benefit of the doubt by indicating when suffering, or an analogous subjective state, is likely.

To study the influence of maternal stress on neonatal locomotor development, rat pups of mothers housed singly and in groups were treated orally with corticosterone from 2 to 15 days of age. Control animals received almond oil vehicle only. The rat pups were subjected to swim-tests from 8 to 20 days of age to evaluate locomotor development. Swim-test performance demonstrated a retardation of locomotor development in pups treated with corticosterone (P <0.05). Retardation was most marked in the pups from group-housed mothers and between 13 and 15 days of age. Comparing pups not treated with hormones, the pups born to group-housed mothers showed significantly (P <0.05) better performance on swim-testing. The weight gain of pups from group-housed mothers was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of pups from individually caged mothers. Corticosteroid treatment had no effect on weight gain.

Observations on the external locations of harpoon wounds were made on 127 minke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata taken during Japanese commercial whaling operations in the 1978/79 Antarctic season. The numbers of wounds per whale did not vary between catcher boats, the average being 1.2. Although the cranio-thoracic region seemed to be the target of choice (bearing 60.5% of all wounds examined), the proportion of wounds in this region varied significantly between catcher boats, ranging from 43.6 to 75.7 per cent. It is suggested that this variation arose because to hit the cranio-thoracic region, the first section of the whale to surface, requires considerable skill on the part of the gunner.

Members of the cat family are highly motivated to hunt, but in captivity are unable to do so for a variety of reasons. This inability to hunt may reduce their welfare. In this study we used a moving bait to stimulate and release hunting motivation in two captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Essentially our enrichment device consisted of a dead rabbit, hung from a pulley, just above the ground, moving down a 34 metre length of wire by the force of gravity. We observed the cheetahs for 140 minutes per day over three sequential food presentation periods: Baseline (10 consecutive days), Device (10 consecutive days) and Post-device (5 consecutive days). The moving bait significantly increased the frequency of sprinting (hunting) and time spent performing observations. It significantly decreased time spent in affiliation and feeding. These effects were also observed at times other than when the moving bait was presented. Thus, a moving bait allows captive cheetahs to perform ‘natural-looking’ hunting in captivity.

A four-month study was conducted on three groups of free-ranging, provisioned Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus, L) on Gibraltar in 1992. The groups exhibited marked contrasts in the levels of provisioned, tourist-derived and natural foods in their diet, which related to differences experienced in the level and nature of human visitation.

Feeding on natural plant items accounted for only 17-20 per cent of feeding records at all sites, whereas provisioned food was the dominant element (over 75% of records) at the least visited group. In contrast 51.7 per cent of items consumed at the site most used by tourists (Apes’ Den) involved tourist-derived foods, with provisioned food contributing only 28 per cent of feeding records. The high caloric content of tourist-derived foods together with their dominance in the diet at Apes’ Den is implicated in the well-documented weight-related problems affecting this group.

Current levels of uncontrolled tourist feeding present a health and welfare threat to the Barbary macaques of Gibraltar, particularly the Apes ‘ Den group. Future management plans must recognize and seek to remedy the negative impacts of tourism.

The question of whether witnessing slaughter of conspecifics is distressing was investigated in sheep. Previously catheterized sheep were allowed to see the stunning and sticking (exsanguination) of other sheep. Heart rate was monitored and serial blood samples were taken to assess stress responses. Although the measurable parameter levels were generally high due to human contact and handling, there were no specific increases in response to witnessing stunning and slaughter. This work failed to produce any evidence to suggest that sheep are distressed by witnessing the slaughter act.

This booklet is aimed at school heads and governors and explains why the RSPCA considers that there is a need for all schools to have, or to develop as part of their overall plan, a policy on animals and education. It also provides guidance on what the policy should cover and how it can be established. A key component of the suggested programme is the undertaking of an animal welfare audit of the school and its activities. This includes, not only an assessment of standards of management of any animals kept at the school but also the animal welfare implications of maintaining the school grounds and of catering, cleaning and waste disposal. It is suggested that much of the audit and follow-up activities can be undertaken by pupils in a way that can fulfil key requirements of the National Curriculum in core and foundation subjects.

The purpose of this study was to assess whether running an alleyway can be used to measure the motivation of lizards. Six, eyed skinks, Chalcides ocellatus, were trained to run an alleyway to reach sand in which to hide. Each skink was deprived of sand for 0, 1, 5 or 15 minutes on four occasions and the times to run the alleyway and the latencies to move were recorded. When the sand was 38cm from the start, the three deprivation periods resulted in decreased latencies and increased speed (P < 0.01), but there was no difference between the speeds or latencies for any of the deprivation periods. In a second experiment, the sand was moved to 94cm from the start. Latencies to move did decrease (p < 0.05) as in the first experiment, but speed did not increase. Within certain constraints, this methodology appears to be a good way of assessing motivation of reptiles.

The behavioural time budget of 140 turkey poults housed on litter in groups of 10-11 in small pens was recorded by individual scan sampling from 1-day-old to 12-weeks-old. Over this time period some behaviour (sitting/sleeping) remained relatively constant, some (feeding) declined and remained low, some (standing/walking, drinking) declined and rose again, while some (environmental pecking, bird pecking, preening) rose and then declined. By 12 weeks the incidence of some behaviours appeared to have stabilized, though others were still changing. A substantial proportion of their activity could be categorized as beak-related behaviour. Feather pecking and cannibalism are major behavioural and welfare problems in intensively-housed turkeys; it is postulated that one reason for this may be because a major proportion of their beak-related behaviour is strongly directed towards plumage, either their own or that of other birds, rather than towards food or environmental stimuli. One possible solution may be to seek ways of increasing the proportion of time they spend feeding.

When designing cages to maximize welfare, we should consider both the physical and psychological needs of the animals for which the cage is intended. Many laboratory species show non-random defecation patterns and therefore might possess a psychological need for soiling sites with preferred characteristics. This study examined whether caged laboratory mice preferred to defecate on a floor with or without sawdust, and whether mice preferentially defecated in clearly partitioned areas of the cage which prevented mixing of soiled and clean sawdust. The mice were recorded as active in each area of the cage at a frequency that would be expected from the floor-area available, ie general activity was randomly distributed, but, the mice were selective in the areas used for defecation. Significantly more faeces were deposited in areas containing sawdust than in areas without (p<0.0001). After corrections for differences in the size of floor-area, significantly fewer faeces were deposited in partitioned areas at the rear of the cage than in the front area of the cage which contained the feeder and drinkers (p <0.001). Overall, these results show that the mice defecated in localized areas and preferred to defecate in areas containing sawdust. These results support other evidence which indicates that conventional cage designs for mice do not provide a sufficiently complex or appropriate environment to allow selective soiling behaviour. Such cages might therefore be inadequate with respect to catering for the psychological needs and overall welfare of laboratory mice.

A social group of six badgers (Meles meles) (four adults and two cubs) was translocated from urban Bexhill, East Sussex, in August 1993 to a 1216m2 electrified enclosure in a part of Suffolk largely unoccupied by badgers. Three adult badgers (SY2, SY5 and SY6) escaped from the release site prior to the removal of the perimeter fence on 10 December and established a sett near a village, 2.9km from the release site. In January 1994, the remaining adult (SY4) left the release site and moved 1.8km to the grounds of a youth detention centre. The cubs did not desert the site as readily as the adults.

Home-range sizes for two adult females, SY4 and SY6, remained relatively constant, while that of adult male SY2 increased from 50ha in February to nearly 400ha in April. The range of SY2 overlapped parts of the ranges of the two females, although SY4 and SY6's ranges never overlapped.

The percentage volume of scavenged food in the diet increased monthly between February and April which corresponded to increased garden activity over this period. Earthworms were the most important item in the diet. The establishment of both main setts near housing and the preference for foraging in gardens suggests that badgers released into novel environments may search for familiar habitats.

It is concluded that translocation can successfully establish badgers at new locations. However, translocation as a solution to problems caused by badgers must only be viewed as a last resort, not least due to the potential for disease spread.

The UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has produced a short guide to the legislation relating to the welfare of animals on the farm. It covers the 11 main Acts of Parliament which are of importance in this area. There is a summary of the statutory provisions of each of these Acts and, where appropriate, of the Orders and Regulations made under the Acts. It is pointed out that while every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the summaries: they are only summaries and the actual legislation should be consulted and legal advice sought when particular points in the law need to be considered.

The severity of respiratory distress occurring prior to loss of posture during exposure to: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 or 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air; 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen in argon; 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with either 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen; or 40 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with either 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen, was subjectively determined in pigs from their behaviour. The results indicated that exposure to 2 per cent oxygen in argon (anoxia) induced minimal respiratory distress, 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with 2 per cent residual oxygen induced a moderate distress and exposure to all the concentrations of carbon dioxide in air induced severe respiratory distress in the pigs. From the animal welfare point of view, using 2 per cent oxygen in argon (anoxia) appears to be the optimum choice for gas stunning pigs. Secondly, a mixture of 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with 2 per cent residual oxygen is preferred to 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air.

Each year now since 1991 the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) has produced a review of the involvement of the Society with scientific matters. The 1994 Review has now been published and contains an account of the research, development and technical work carried out by the RSPCA Science Division ie the Farm Animal Department, the Research Animal Department, the Wildlife Department and the RSPCA Veterinary Division. There are detailed lists of the meetings and events attended by the staff of these two divisions, of RSPCA scientific publications, of reports and papers presented during 1994 and of grants awarded to outside individuals and organizations for scientific investigatory work and for technical developments.

This series of publications is made up of: a six-page coloured leaflet-card on ‘Environmental Weeds in Australia’; a four-page coloured leaflet-card on ‘Feral Animals in Australia’ in general; and five, two-page coloured leaflet-cards on ‘The Feral Cat (Felis catus)’, ‘The Feral Goat (Capra hircus)’, the ‘European Wild Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)’, ‘The Feral Pig (Sus scrofa)’ and the ‘European Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)’.

Early in 1995 the Department of Animal Hygiene of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine carried out a survey of postgraduate teaching in farm animal welfare and ethics. Some 60 university-based persons in 12 countries, known to be interested and working in this area, were contacted and asked to fill in a straightforward two-page questionnaire. All but 4 responded. The results were correlated and have now been published in booklet form. There are some 10 pages of text, 22 pages of tables and, in an Appendix, a copy of the actual questionnaire.