The effect of providing a shelter to single-housed rats was measured in terms of the preference shown for a cage containing a shelter compared with a barren cage, the range of behaviours performed and the apparent fearfulness of the animals. All animals showed a strong preference for cages containing a shelter and rats housed in this environment showed increased exploratory behaviour and were apparently less fearful, based on their willingness to leave the home-cage. It would seem appropriate to provide enclosed shelters within the cages of laboratory rats as a way of improving their environment.

A survey was performed in the Spring of 1995 to map postgraduate education world-wide in animal welfare and ethics. Twenty-one universities in ten countries on three continents were identified, that either offered, or had definite plans to start, postgraduate courses relating to animal welfare and/or ethics. Of these universities nine were European, one Australian, one New Zealand, one Canadian and nine were American. In Australia, Canada and the United States courses are given during a semester or quarter of a semester, while in Europe short but concentrated courses or seminars are more common, with several of them aimed at practising veterinarians rather than at postgraduate students. Interest in the subject of animal welfare and ethics seems to be increasing. Many of the existing courses were started during recent years, and two of the most comprehensive programmes offered were started in 1995. Also, four chairs in animal welfare were recently established or were advertised in Europe at the time of this survey. One chair had been established in 1994, in New Zealand, one was to be advertised in the United States and one in Canada. Another trend is towards the establishment of ‘centres’ for the study of animal welfare issues. Associated with these new chairs and centres, educational programmes will probably be started. Few of the present courses focus mainly on farm animal issues, instead they cover a large spectrum of the human-animal relationship. Ethics is a minor part of the courses as compared to the science and animal welfare components.

The most common method of culling impala (Aepyceros melampus) and many other antelope species in Africa was evaluated from a welfare point of view. The culling of 856 impala from 401 herds was observed and recorded in the Mkuzi Game Reserve, South Africa. Ninety-three per cent of animals were killed instantaneously by the first shot. Results indicated that herd size and composition, distance of herd from hunting vehicle and shot number all have a bearing on the number of animals wounded and missed. It is concluded that the culling of free-ranging impala by night-hunting in the manner described is a satisfactory method on welfare grounds, although a number of recommendations are made which might render the culling process more humane. It is argued that economic and welfare considerations are not necessarily in conflict, and long-term efficiency is likely to be enhanced by addressing both simultaneously.

Chimpanzees are sometimes housed in conditions of restricted social contact during use in biomedical research, a practice that may adversely affect their behaviour. This study measured the impact of such conditions on levels of stereotyped body rocking in six young, nursery-reared chimpanzees. Subject age at the beginning of the biomedical research protocol ranged from 1.1 to 3.8 years. Over a six-month period the subjects were moved to a different facility. During this time they were used in a biomedical research study which involved some periods of single housing. They were then returned to their original facility. The percentage of time subjects devoted to stereotyped rocking was measured for 36 weeks before and 36 weeks after participation in the biomedical protocol. Data on body rocking were also analysed for a post-test control group of animals (n = 9) who had a similar history of handrearing, but who did not leave the facility to participate in a biomedical research study. The behavioural analyses included 263 hours of focal animal observational data and revealed that the experimental subjects devoted equivalent amounts of time to rocking before and after participation in the biomedical research protocol. The experimental subjects and the control subjects showed similar levels of rocking. These findings indicate that participation in this particular short-term biomedical research protocol did not affect the expression of stereotyped rocking in chimpanzees.

Lairage staff at 11 abattoirs were asked to rate which producers regularly provided pigs which were ‘easy’ (EH) or ‘difficult’ (DH) to handle, on a scale of one (very DH) to five (very EH). A postal questionnaire, dealing with various aspects of post-weaning farm management, was then given to the four or five producers sending the most EH and the four or five producers sending the most DH pigs to each abattoir. Of 105 questionnaires sent, information on 26 EH and 27 DH systems was returned. The median number of replies per abattoir was two for both EH and DH systems. In most systems (77%) pigs experienced three or four housing stages from weaning to slaughter. In each of the first five housing stages, more EH pigs had access to daylight (mean of 86% ± 11.5 (SD)) than DH pigs (mean of 64% ± 10.1 (SD), P < 0.05, two-sample t test). More EH systems provided straw in the first three housing stages, although over all stages the difference was not significant. During housing stage two, the difference in provision of straw between the systems was most marked, with 58 per cent of EH and 27 per cent of DH systems providing straw. Distance walked between housing stages three to four and four to five was significantly greater for EH compared to DH systems (EH mean of 64m ± 24.1 (SD), versus DH mean of 22m ± 14.0 (SD), and EH mean of 73m ±17.2 (SD), versus DH mean of 23m ± 8.5 (SD), P <0.001 and 0.01 respectively, two-sample t test). At loading for pre-slaughter transport, moving from daylight to daylight conditions occurred in 65 per cent of EH and 25 per cent of DH systems. Overall, the results provide circumstantial evidence that environmental factors can affect ease of handling, and hence pig welfare during pre-slaughter transport and lairage.

The influence of an environmental enrichment programme on the searching behaviour of separate groups of male and female bush dogs at Edinburgh Zoo was evaluated. The enrichment programme involved hiding food in specially constructed wood-piles and other appropriate places in the bush dogs’ enclosures. Behavioural data were recorded morning and afternoon for 20 consecutive experimental days and were compared to pre- and post-enrichment programme data, representing basal conditions. Data were collected over a 10-period for both pre and post enrichment phases. Activities were recorded under seven behavioural categories. There was no significant difference between sexes in the proportion of time spent performing searching behaviour so data were pooled. The enrichment programme appeared to cause an increase (P < 0.01) in searching behaviour from initial basal conditions of 2.7per cent to 6.1 per cent of total recorded data points. There was a subsequent decrease in searching behaviour (P < 0.01) to 2.5 per cent when basal conditions were reinstated. All dogs showed increases in searching behaviour when enrichment and basal data were compared. The effectiveness of the enrichment programme in terms of increasing the proportion of time spent in searching behaviour showed a significant decline (P <0.005) over time, probably relating to the dogs increasing proficiency at finding food. It is suggested that the enhanced levels of searching behaviour represent an improvement in welfare.

During homing contests, racing pigeons (Columba livia) are transported to their release site under crowded conditions. Behaviour and thermogenesis under these conditions were studied in two experiments. In the first experiment, temperature (26 °C or 36 °C) and water availability (access or deprived) had no significant effect on either behaviour or heat production of old male pigeons. However, the frequency of threatening behaviour and the proportion of activity-related heat production in total heat production increased during the 23-hour experimental period, whereas no decrease in aggressive behaviour was found. In the second experiment the effect of testing age (young or old) and sex (male or female) were considered in relation to behaviour and thermogenesis. Young pigeons were more immobile than old pigeons, but heat production was lower in old pigeons. Male groups had a higher activity-related heat production and had more head injuries resulting from pecking than females. Again, no decrease in aggressive behaviour or changes in behaviour patterns over time were found. Body-weight at the start of the experiment was predictive of subsequent behaviour in the crate. A higher body-weight was related to more threatening behaviour, less displacement and less head injuries. The consistent level of aggressive behaviour over time, causing predictable head injuries, indicates that a ‘ceiling effect’ in adaptation is reached under crowded transport conditions. To improve pigeon welfare, serious considerations must be given to transporting racing pigeons under less crowded conditions.

Around 3000 horse-related traffic accidents are reported every year in the UK and although, thankfully, very few human fatalities occur as a result of these accidents the number of horses that are killed runs into hundreds. Many riders do not have access to bridlepaths and private farmland or find that these can only be reached via roads. With increasing numbers of motorists and a growing intolerance of horses on the road the problem is significant.

In New Zealand, blood is harvested from horses, cattle, sheep and goats for research (eg preparation of specific antisera) and commercial purposes (eg vaccine production). Due to the country's favourable disease status there is a growing demand from other countries for harvested blood and it is expected that the blood-harvesting industry in New Zealand will grow. These guidelines were drawn up for use by local Animal Ethics Committees in New Zealand in order to safeguard the welfare of animals used for blood-harvesting. The guidelines contain sections on facilities and equipment, bleeding techniques, volume and frequency of bleeding, animal monitoring (including monitoring of packed cell volume) and other aspects of blood-harvesting. It is stated that not more than 15 per cent of estimated circulating blood volume should be removed in any four week period. However, it may be acceptable in some circumstances, with the approval of the institutional Animal Ethics Committee, for up to 25 per cent of estimated circulating blood volume to be removed. The document is required reading for people involved with the blood-harvesting industry in New Zealand but it is also likely to be of interest and value to those involved in similar work elsewhere in the world.

In April 1996 the Animal Health Trust, the British Veterinary Association Animal Welfare Foundation and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals held the second of an annual series of joint one-day symposia on welfare problems of food animals and horses, entitled The Economics of Food Animal Welfare.

The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 (Appropriate Methods of Killing) Order 1996 came into force in the UK on 1st March 1997. This sets out a revised Schedule 1 to the 1986 Act concerning appropriate methods of humane killing. To accompany this 1996 Order, the Home Office has issued a Code of Practice as guidance to the amended Schedule 1 (which is included in the Code of Practice as an appendix). The approved methods of killing laboratory animals are those which are used to kill animals at designated establishments for scientific purposes (other methods of killing, should there be a requirement for them, can only be used under licence from the Home Office). The revised Schedule 1 lists approved killing methods and secondary procedures which ensure that the animal is dead. These include the following: confirmation of permanent cessation of the circulation, destruction of the brain, dislocation of the neck, exsanguination, confirming the onset of rigor mortis or (after confirming that the animal is insensitive) instantaneous destruction of the body in a macerator.

In January 1995 the Nuffield Council on Bioethics set up a working party which produced a well-balanced report in March 1996 entitled Animal-to-Human Transplants: the Ethics of Xenotransplantation. In September 1995, the Government set up its own advisory group which has now produced its own report and this has been published together with the Government's response to the issue. There are many areas of agreement between the two reports but they do differ in emphasis and coverage of various topics. Significantly, both agree that protection under The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 for animals bred for xenotransplantation purposes needs to be extended. Together, the two reports provide an extremely detailed investigation into the controversial issues involved in xenotransplantation.

This report covers the welfare of farmed salmon and trout with some brief references to carp. The report is the published findings of a study carried out by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) to provide advice to Ministers on the development of a Council of Europe Recommendation about the welfare of farmed fish.

As the editors of this recently-published proceedings point out in their introduction ‘The practice of controlling animals perceived as threats to human or environmental interests is uniquely placed on an intersection of various ethical, scientific, economic, social and conservation issues.’ There are many complex, practical and ethical dilemmas in controlling pests. For a start, there is no simple definition of what is and is not a pest. Perspectives and opinions also vary widely on the subject. Incidentally, with the human population of the world at over 5.5 billion and bearing in mind the damage which humans can do to the interests and viability of many other species, who best deserves the label ‘pest’ is an interesting point.