Police employees may experience high levels of stress due to the challenging nature of their work which can then lead to sickness absence. To date, there has been limited research on sickness absence in the police. This exploratory analysis investigated sickness absence in UK police employees.

Secondary data analyses were conducted using data from the Airwave Health Monitoring Study (2006–2015). Past year sickness absence was self-reported and categorised as none, low (1–5 days), moderate (6–19 days) and long-term sickness absence (LTSA, 20 or more days). Descriptive statistics and multinomial logistic regressions were used to examine sickness absence and exploratory associations with sociodemographic factors, occupational stressors, health risk behaviours, and mental health outcomes, controlling for rank, gender and age.

From a sample of 40,343 police staff and police officers, forty-six per cent had no sickness absence within the previous year, 33% had a low amount, 13% a moderate amount and 8% were on LTSA. The groups that were more likely to take sick leave were women, non-uniformed police staff, divorced or separated, smokers and those with three or more general practitioner consultations in the past year, poorer mental health, low job satisfaction and high job strain.

The study highlights the groups of police employees who may be more likely to take sick leave and is unique in its use of a large cohort of police employees. The findings emphasise the importance of considering possible modifiable factors that may contribute to sickness absence in UK police forces.

This longitudinal register study aimed to investigate the association between gambling disorder (GD) and work disability and to map work disability in subgroups of individuals with GD, three years before and three years after diagnosis.

We included individuals aged 19–62 with GD between 2005 and 2018 (n = 2830; 71.1% men, mean age: 35.1) and a matched comparison cohort (n = 28 300). Work disability was operationalized as the aggregated net days of sickness absence and disability pension. Generalized estimating equation models were used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the risk of long-term work disability (>90 days of work disability/year). Secondly, we conducted Group-based Trajectory Models on days of work disability.

Individuals with GD showed a four-year increased risk of long-term work disability compared to the matched cohort, peaking at the time of diagnosis (AOR = 1.89; CI 1.67–2.13). Four trajectory groups of work disability days were identified: constant low (60.3%, 5.6–11.2 days), low and increasing (11.4%, 11.8–152.5 days), medium–high and decreasing (11.1%, 65.1–110 days), and constant high (17.1%, 264–331 days). Individuals who were females, older, with prior psychiatric diagnosis, and had been dispensed a psychotropic medication, particularly antidepressants, were more likely to be assigned to groups other than the constant low.

Individuals with GD have an increased risk of work disability which may add financial and social pressure and is an additional incentive for earlier detection and prevention of GD.

Although seasonality has been documented for mental disorders, it is unknown whether similar patterns can be observed in employee sickness absence from work due to a wide range of mental disorders with different severity level, and to what extent the rate of change in light exposure plays a role. To address these limitations, we used daily based sickness absence records to examine seasonal patterns in employee sickness absence due to mental disorders.

We used nationwide diagnosis-specific psychiatric sickness absence claims data from 2006 to 2017 for adult individuals aged 16–67 (n = 636,543 sickness absence episodes) in Finland, a high-latitude country with a profound variation in daylength. The smoothed time-series of the ratio of observed and expected (O/E) daily counts of episodes were estimated, adjusted for variation in all-cause sickness absence rates during the year.

Unipolar depressive disorders peaked in October–November and dipped in July, with similar associations in all forms of depression. Also, anxiety and non-organic sleep disorders peaked in October–November. Anxiety disorders dipped in January–February and in July–August, while non-organic sleep disorders dipped in April–August. Manic episodes reached a peak from March to July and dipped in September–November and in January–February. Seasonality was not dependent on the severity of the depressive disorder.

These results suggest a seasonal variation in sickness absence due to common mental disorders and bipolar disorder, with high peaks in depressive, anxiety and sleep disorders towards the end of the year and a peak in manic episodes starting in spring. Rapid changes in light exposure may contribute to sickness absence due to bipolar disorder. The findings can help clinicians and workplaces prepare for seasonal variations in healthcare needs.

Sick leave due to mental disorders poses a relevant societal and economic burden. Research on sick leave over a patient journey of individuals who received one of two treatment approaches – either behavioral (BT) or psychodynamic (PDT) psychotherapy – is scarce.

We conducted a cohort study on anonymized German claims data for propensity-score matched patients who received short-term outpatient BT or PDT. We analyzed sick leave days and direct health care costs one year before, during, and one year after psychotherapy.

We analyzed data of patients who received BT and PDT, with N = 14 530 patients per group after matching. Patients showed sick leave days per person year of 33.66 and 35.05 days before, 35.99 and 39.74 days during, and 20.03 and 20.95 days after BT and PDT, respectively. Sick leave rates were overall higher in patients who received PDT. Both patient groups showed reductions of roughly 14 sick leave days per year, or 40%, from before to after therapy without a difference between BT and PDT (difference-in-difference [DiD] = −0.48, 95%-confidence interval [CI] −1.61 to 0.68). Same applies to direct health care costs which reduced in both groups by roughly 1800 EUR (DiD = 0, 95%-CI −158 to 157).

Results suggest similar reductions in sick leave days and direct health care costs from before to after BT and PDT. As sick leave is discussed to serve as an indicator of overall health and functioning in mental disorders, both treatments may have a similar positive impact on mental health.

Research is scarce on the role of familial factors and previous psychiatric care on the association between suicide attempt and future work incapacity as well as deterioration in mental health. We aimed to investigate the associations between suicide attempt and sickness absence, disability pension and psychiatric patient care and to study the influence of previous psychiatric care and familial factors (genetics and shared environment) on the associations.

The study included 65 097 twins living in Sweden on 31st of December 2006, aged 19–60 years. The twins were followed 2007–2013 regarding sickness absence, disability pension, inpatient care or specialized outpatient care for a mental diagnosis. Cox regression models were performed for the whole sample, and conditional models for discordant twin pairs. The analyses were also stratified by psychiatric care before 2007.

We found that suicide attempt predicted sickness absence, disability pension, and future mental diagnosis among the whole sample. The discordant twin pair analyses showed that the association between suicide attempt and sickness absence or disability pension was influenced by familial factors. Stratified analyses of individuals with or without psychiatric care before 2007 showed that previous psychiatric care had some impact on the associations.

A suicide attempt is a risk factor for work incapacity and psychiatric patient care. Familial factors and previous psychiatric care play a role in the associations between attempting suicide and work incapacity as well as psychiatric patient care. These factors are important when developing measures preventing work incapacity among those with a suicide attempt.

Labour market marginalisation (LMM), i.e. severe problems in finding and keeping a job, is common among young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study aimed to disentangle the extent of LMM as well as the heterogeneity in patterns of LMM among young adults with ADHD and what characterises those belonging to these distinct trajectories of LMM.

This population-based register study investigated all 6287 young adults, aged 22–29 years, who had their first primary or secondary diagnosis of ADHD in Sweden between 2006 and 2011. Group-based trajectory (GBT) models were used to estimate trajectories of LMM, conceptualised as both unemployment and work disability, 3 years before and 5 years after the year of an incident diagnosis of ADHD. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the association between individual characteristics and the trajectory groups of LMM were estimated by multinomial logistic regression.

Six distinct trajectories of LMM were found: ‘increasing high’ (21% belonged to this trajectory group) with high levels of LMM throughout the study period, ‘rapidly increasing’ (19%), ‘moderately increasing’ (21%), ‘constant low’ (12%) with low levels of LMM throughout the study period, ‘moderately decreasing’ (14%) and finally ‘fluctuating’ (13%), following a reversed u-shaped curve. Individuals with the following characteristics had an increased probability of belonging to trajectory groups of increasing LMM: low educational level (moderately increasing: OR: 1.4; CI: 1.2–1.8, rapidly increasing: OR: 1.7; CI: 1.3–2.1, increasing high: OR: 2.9; CI: 2.3–3.6), single parents (moderately increasing: OR: 1.6; CI: 1.1–2.4, rapidly increasing: OR: 2.0; CI: 1.3–3.0), those born outside the European Union/the Nordic countries (rapidly increasing: OR: 1.7; CI: 1.1–2.5, increasing high: OR: 2.1; CI: 1.4–3.1), persons living in small cities/villages (moderately increasing: OR: 2.4; CI: 1.9–3.0, rapidly increasing: OR: 2.1; CI: 1.6–2.7, increasing high: OR: 2.6; CI: 2.0–3.3) and those with comorbid mental disorders, most pronounced regarding schizophrenia/psychoses (rapidly increasing: OR: 6.7; CI: 2.9–19.5, increasing high: OR: 12.8; CI: 5.5–37.0), autism spectrum disorders (rapidly increasing: OR: 4.6; CI: 3.1–7.1, increasing high: OR: 9.6; CI: 6.5–14.6), anxiety/stress-related disorders (moderately increasing: OR: 1.3; CI: 1.1–1.7, rapidly increasing: OR: 2.0; CI: 1.6–2.5, increasing high: OR: 1.8; CI: 1.5–2.3) and depression/bipolar disorder (moderately increasing: OR: 1.3; CI: 1.0–1.6, rapidly increasing: OR: 1.7; CI: 1.4–2.2, increasing high: OR: 1.5; CI: 1.2–1.9).

About 61% of young adults were characterised by increasing LMM after a diagnosis of ADHD. To avoid marginalisation, attention should especially be given to young adults diagnosed with ADHD with a low educational level, that are single parents and who are living outside big cities. Also, young adults with comorbid mental disorders should be monitored for LMM early in working life.

The objective of this population-based register study was (1) to investigate the association between young adults diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and subsequent labour market marginalisation (LMM) in two comparison groups, i.e. matched young adults from the general population without ADHD and unaffected siblings to persons with ADHD and (2) to assess the role of comorbid disorders.

This study included all young adults in Sweden, aged 19–29 years, with an incident diagnosis of ADHD 2006–2011 (n = 9718). Crude and multivariate sex-stratified hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were measured 5 years after the diagnosis of ADHD for the risk of disability pension, long-term sickness absence (SA) (>90 days), long-term unemployment (>180 days) and a combined measure of all three in young adults with ADHD compared to their siblings without ADHD and a matched comparison group.

In the adjusted analyses young adults with ADHD had a 10-fold higher risk of disability pension (HR = 10.2; CI 9.3–11.2), a nearly three-fold higher risk of long-term SA (HR = 2.7; CI 2.5–2.8) and a 70% higher risk of long-term unemployment (HR = 1.7; CI 1.6–1.8) compared to the matched comparison group. The risk estimates were lower compared to siblings for disability pension (HR = 9.0; CI 6.6–12.3) and long-term SA (HR = 2.5; CI 2.1–3.1) but higher in the long-term unemployed (HR = 1.9; CI 1.6–2.1). Comorbid disorders explained about one-third of the association between ADHD and disability pension, but less regarding SA and long-term unemployment.

Young adults with ADHD have a high risk for different measures of LMM and comorbidities explain only a small proportion of this relationship.

Investigate the feasibility of identifying a well-defined treatment group and a comparable reference group in clinical register data.

There is insufficient knowledge on how to avert neck/back pain from turning chronic or to impair work ability. The Swedish Government implemented a national multimodal rehabilitation (MMR) programme in primary care intending to promote work ability, reduce sick leave and increase return to work. Since randomised control trial data for effect is lacking, it is important to evaluate existing observational data from clinical settings.

We identified all unique patients with musculoskeletal pain (MSP) diagnoses undergoing the MMR programme in primary care in the Skåne Health care Register (n = 2140) during 2010–2011. A reference cohort in primary care (n = 56 300) with similar MSP diagnoses, same ages and the same level of sick leave before baseline was identified for the same period. The reference cohort received ordinary care and treatment in primary care. The final study group consisted of 603 eligible MMR patients and 2874 eligible reference patients. Socio-economic and health-related baseline data including sick leave one year before up to two years after baseline were compared between groups.

There were significant socio-economic and health differences at baseline between the MMR and the reference patients, with the MMR group having lower income, higher morbidity and more sick leave days. Sick leave days per year decreased significantly in the MMR group (118–102 days, P < 0.001) and in the reference group (50–42 days, P < 0.001) from one year before baseline to two years after.

It was not feasible to identify a comparable reference group based on clinical register data. Despite an ambitious attempt to limit selection bias, significant baseline differences in socio-economic and health were present. In absence of randomised trials, effects of MMR cannot be sufficiently evaluated in primary care.

Long-term sickness absence is a significant human and economic cost in many countries, including Sweden making research on factors which impact on return to work (RTW) relevant. This study has two aims: (1) provide an overview of factors that impact RTW expectations in a national sample of Swedish workers on long-term sickness absence; and (2) gain an understanding of the interrelationships among these factors using a socioecological framework and decision tree analysis.

A survey, designed to capture information about demographic variables, health and work ability, workplace contact, supervisor support and expectations of return to work, was mailed to 1,112 randomly selected sick-listed people in Sweden and completed by 534, representing a response rate of 48%.

The most important factors affecting RTW expectations were work ability and burnout. Employees reporting high levels of work ability were more likely to expect to RTW compared to those reporting low levels, and this was dependent on their relative burnout score. Those with a high burnout score were less likely to expect to RTW, while for those with a low burnout score RTW expectations were dependent on age, country of birth, and supervisor support. For young employees reporting low work ability and low burnout score, RTW expectations were lower.

Our results suggest a more nuanced approach to delivery of RTW services is required, whereby practitioners need to understand the socioecology of the range of factors that impact RTW expectations. The use of decision tree analysis facilitates this understanding by describing the interrelationships between these factors.

Despite a reported high rate of mental disorders in refugees, scientific knowledge on their risk of suicide attempt and suicide is scarce. We aimed to investigate (1) the risk of suicide attempt and suicide in refugees in Sweden, according to their country of birth, compared with Swedish-born individuals and (2) to what extent time period effects, socio-demographics, labour market marginalisation (LMM) and morbidity explain these associations.

Three cohorts comprising the entire population of Sweden, 16–64 years at 31 December 1999, 2004 and 2009 (around 5 million each, of which 3.3–5.0% refugees), were followed for 4 years each through register linkage. Additionally, the 2004 cohort was followed for 9 years, to allow analyses by refugees' country of birth. Crude and multivariate hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed. The multivariate models were adjusted for socio-demographic, LMM and morbidity factors.

In multivariate analyses, HRs regarding suicide attempt and suicide in refugees, compared with Swedish-born, ranged from 0.38–1.25 and 0.16–1.20 according to country of birth, respectively. Results were either non-significant or showed lower risks for refugees. Exceptions were refugees from Iran (HR 1.25; 95% CI 1.14–1.41) for suicide attempt. The risk for suicide attempt in refugees compared with the Swedish-born diminished slightly across time periods.

Refugees seem to be protected from suicide attempt and suicide relative to Swedish-born, which calls for more studies to disentangle underlying risk and protective factors.

To evaluate the spread of pain and its correlates among immigrant patients on sick leave.

Backache, outspread pain and sick-leave questions are problematic to handle primary health care, especially in multicultural settings.

Two hundred and thirty-five patients 20–45 years on paid sick leave (59% women, 93% foreign-born, mostly non-Europeans). Many had little formal education. One-third had professional interpreter support. The patients pointed out on their bodies where they felt pain. This information was transferred on a pain drawing [pain drawing fields (PDFs) 0–18] by a doctor. Major depression and psychosocial stressors were assessed using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Nociceptive locations for pain were established (pain-sites 0–18). Dependent variable was the number of PDFs. Independent variables were social data, sick leave, interpreter, depression, stress levels and number of pain sites. Calculations were done using descriptive methods and multi-variable linear regression in full models, by gender.

Many patients had depression (51% women versus 32% men). A majority were exposed to psychosocial stressors. Women had more PDFs, in median 5 [inter-quartile ranges (IQR) 4–8] versus men 3 (IQR 2–5), and also more pain sites, in median 3 (IQR 2–5) versus men in median 2 (IQR 1–3). For men, the regression calculations revealed that numbers of PDFs associated only with increasing numbers of pain sites (B 0.871 P < 0.001). For women, this association was weaker (B 0.364, P < 0.001), with significant values also for age (B 0.103) and sick leave > one year (B 0.767, P = 0.010), and a negative predicting value for interpreter support (B −1.198, P < 0.043). To conclude, PDFs associated often with somatic findings but varied much among the women. This implies potential problems regarding cause, function and sick leave questions. However, support by professional interpreters may facilitate a shared understanding with immigrant women having long-standing pain.

Social workers report high levels of stress and have an increased risk for hospitalisation with mental diagnoses. However, it is not known whether the risk of work disability with mental diagnoses is higher among social workers compared with other human service professionals. We analysed trends in work disability (sickness absence and disability pension) with mental diagnoses and return to work (RTW) in 2005–2012 among social workers in Finland and Sweden, comparing with such trends in preschool teachers, special education teachers and psychologists.

Records of work disability (>14 days) with mental diagnoses (ICD-10 codes F00–F99) from nationwide health registers were linked to two prospective cohort projects: the Finnish Public Sector study, years 2005–2011 and the Insurance Medicine All Sweden database, years 2005–2012. The Finnish sample comprised 4849 employees and the Swedish 119 219 employees covering four occupations: social workers (Finland 1155/Sweden 23 704), preschool teachers (2419/74 785), special education teachers (832/14 004) and psychologists (443/6726). The reference occupations were comparable regarding educational level. Risk of work disability was analysed with negative binomial regression and RTW with Cox proportional hazards.

Social workers in Finland and Sweden had a higher risk of work disability with mental diagnoses compared with preschool teachers and special education teachers (rate ratios (RR) 1.43–1.91), after adjustment for age and sex. In Sweden, but not in Finland, social workers also had higher work disability risk than psychologists (RR 1.52; 95% confidence interval 1.28–1.81). In Sweden, in the final model special education teachers had a 9% higher probability RTW than social workers. In Sweden, in the final model the risks for work disability with depression diagnoses and stress-related disorder diagnoses were similar to the risk with all mental diagnoses (RR 1.40–1.77), and the probability of RTW was 6% higher in preschool teachers after work disability with depression diagnoses and 9% higher in special education teachers after work disability with stress-related disorder diagnoses compared with social workers.

Social workers appear to be at a greater risk of work disability with mental diagnoses compared with other human service professionals in Finland and Sweden. It remains to be studied whether the higher risk is due to selection of vulnerable employees to social work or the effect of work-related stress in social work. Further studies should focus on these mechanisms and the risk of work disability with mental diagnoses among human service professionals.

The aim of this study was to analyse a possible synergistic effect between back pain and common mental disorders (CMDs) in relation to future disability pension (DP).

All 4 823 069 individuals aged 16–64 years, living in Sweden in December 2004, not pensioned in 2005 and without ongoing sickness absence at the turn of 2004/2005 formed the cohort of this register-based study. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for DP (2006–2010) were estimated. Exposure variables were back pain (M54) (sickness absence or inpatient or specialized outpatient care in 2005) and CMD (F40-F48) [sickness absence or inpatient or specialized outpatient care or antidepressants (N06a) in 2005].

HRs for DP were 4.03 (95% CI 3.87–4.21) and 3.86 (95% CI 3.68–4.04) in women and men with back pain. HRs for DP in women and men with CMD were 4.98 (95% CI 4.88–5.08) and 6.05 (95% CI 5.90–6.21). In women and men with both conditions, HRs for DP were 15.62 (95% CI 14.40–16.94) and 19.84 (95% CI 17.94–21.94). In women, synergy index, relative excess risk due to interaction, and attributable proportion were 1.24 (95% CI 1.13–1.36), 0.18 (95% CI 0.11–0.25), and 2.08 (95% CI 1.09–3.06). The corresponding figures for men were 1.45 (95% CI 1.29–1.62), 0.29 (95% CI 0.22–0.36), and 4.21 (95% CI 2.71–5.70).

Co-morbidity of back pain and CMD is associated with a higher risk of DP than either individual condition, when added up, which has possible clinical implications to prevent further disability and exclusion from the labour market.

Sickness absence is a complex phenomenon affected by aspects other than disease. One important factor that can affect sick leave is the individual’s experience of healthcare encounters. It is therefore essential to consider the quality of the encounter with health professionals and its impact on the patient’s rehabilitation and return to work.

The aim was to explore how sick-listed patients in Sweden perceive their contact with healthcare professionals in primary healthcare and to analyse what they view as crucial components for returning to work.

A qualitative approach was used. Data were collected by semi-structured telephonic interviews with patients who were or had been on sick leave. The transcribed interview text was analysed according to qualitative content analysis.

The analysis revealed two themes that highlight important areas for persons on sick leave in their healthcare encounters. The theme ‘Trust in the relationship’ contains categories describing the patients’ feelings of participation, and of being believed, confirmed, and listened to, and also dedication on the part of healthcare providers. Healthcare encounters that were characterised by professionalism, knowledge, continuity, and a holistic approach seemed to create trust. The theme ‘Structure and balance’ contains the participants’ views on important factors that could support the return-to-work process. All participants stated the importance of follow-up and a plan for rehabilitation. Sick leave itself can make a person passive, and participants in this study asked for support to balance activity, exercise, and work demands, which could facilitate their return to work.

Healthcare professionals can facilitate sick-listed persons’ rehabilitation back to work by providing a clear structure in the process and support in occupational balance. The healthcare encounters must build on a mutual trust.

Work ability and work ability assessments have become important both in health care and in relation to granting sick leave. There are different interpretations of work ability among the different professionals involved, and there is no consensus on how work ability should be assessed.

The aim was to analyse how a group of experienced and specially trained physiotherapists (PTs) in primary health care (PHC) perceived their professional role in work ability assessments during 14 months.

We conducted a prospective focus group study and applied qualitative content analysis to the data.

There was a need to emphasise the PTs’ role both within PHC and also in relation to others involved. The PHC organisation was not really prepared to direct work-disabled patients to PTs before physicians. In addition, the PTs themselves needed to reorganise to better meet the requirements. The PTs underlined the advantage of their frequent and extended meetings with patients. This made it possible to assess, follow and facilitate work ability and to determine patients’ resources. The PTs believed that they could contribute to structured assessments, which was positive for themselves and also in their communication with physicians and patients. The PTs later took more initiatives in work ability questions and believed that they could be responsible for work ability assessments to a greater extent. They found it most valuable to have had the opportunity to reflect on work ability, while working in the focus groups, and also to have been the subjects for further education. This made them more prepared to handle work ability questions when compared with other colleagues.