Collectivism symbolizes Japanese culture for many people in the world including Japanese themselves. The “collectivistic Japanese” are alleged to have the following characteristics: They feel at ease only in a group; they merge into their group and thus lack individuality and autonomy; they are indistinguishable from one another; they conform to their group and cooperate with the group members even at the sacrifice of their own individual interests; their obedience to their group leads to the hierarchical authoritarian society. However, these characterizations are mostly based on casual observations and personal experiences instead of systematic acadmic investigation. In psychology, nevertheless, two influential studies generalized the contrast between Western culture and Japanese culture in collectivism and individualism to the contrast between Western culture and all the other cultures.

Whether hoping to lose 10 pounds, pay off debts, or write the next great novel, the process of goal pursuit forces us to embrace the factors that move us, confront the biases that shape our thinking, overcome the obstacles that impede our actions, and adapt our lifestyles to productive routines. Yet the journey does not end as we transition from goal attainment to goal maintenance. This chapter details the way we construe maintenance to prepare ourselves for long-term success as we face new challenges and embrace new opportunities.

An individual’s view of self is a constant interplay between one’s self-referent cognitions, emotions, motivations, and the social world (Hoyle, Kernis, Leary, & Baldwin, 1999). Both gender and culture are important forces that shape what an individual experiences and how such experiences are interpreted, which in turn influence one’s conception of the self. This chapter aims to discuss two important questions on the selfhood and self-construal of women: How does women’s self-definition differ from that of men? To what extent does culture affect women’s self-definition?