Misinformation is widely seen as a threat to democracy that should be promptly addressed by scholars, journalists, and policymakers. However, some of the debated solutions are either controversial (internet platform regulation) or may be difficult and costly to implement in many settings (fact-checking corrections). This study investigates the effectiveness of preemptive interventions, a type of solution that has received considerably less attention in this debate. Studies show that interventions through awareness and media literacy campaigns can inoculate citizens against misinformation, but these interventions are restricted to a few contexts and settings. Our paper uses two field experiments, one of which was conducted in partnership with Brazil’s main newspaper, to investigate the effectiveness of multidimensional interventions against misinformation in São Paulo. The findings show that preemptive interventions can indeed reduce rumor acceptance and provide insights into the strategies to combat misinformation in democracies.

This article examines the production and reception history of C. S. Favart's La fête du château, commissioned by a French noblewoman, the Marquise of Monconseil, to mark her granddaughter's inoculation against smallpox in 1766. The first half of the article situates the vaudeville comedy at the Bagatelle (Monconseil's private theatre), underscoring the gendered tropes that had accrued to the disease in the late eighteenth century and the function of elite sociability in promoting its prevention. The second half of the article reconstructs the public trajectory of the work, which was presented at Versailles after the controversial inoculation of Louis XVI in 1774. Notably, the agent behind this theatrical public-health campaign was the queen, Marie Antoinette. A consideration of La fête du château's popularity and influence broadens our understanding of the conditions under which ancien-régime opera took on political meaning, as well as the role of women patrons and consumers in this process.

In recent years, interest in the psychology of fake news has rapidly increased. We outline the various interventions within psychological science aimed at countering the spread of fake news and misinformation online, focusing primarily on corrective (debunking) and pre-emptive (prebunking) approaches. We also offer a research agenda of open questions within the field of psychological science that relate to how and why fake news spreads and how best to counter it: the longevity of intervention effectiveness; the role of sources and source credibility; whether the sharing of fake news is best explained by the motivated cognition or the inattention accounts; and the complexities of developing psychometrically validated instruments to measure how interventions affect susceptibility to fake news at the individual level.

Streptococcus uberis is the most common cause of clinical mastitis at calving in pasture-based dairy cows. Results of experimental inoculations were compared with cows' previous history of infection to help define a model for susceptibility to Str. uberis mastitis. Cows used had either no apparent history of intramammary infection (IMI) by Str. uberis or other major mastitis pathogens throughout their productive lifetime (‘apparently uninfected’; AUI), or had a confirmed history of Str. uberis IMI (‘historically infected’; HI). Cows were exposed to Str. uberis in sequential steps: dipping of the teat end (DIP; n=53 cows); a teat canal inoculation (TCI; n=33 cows); and, finally, intramammary inoculation challenge (IC; n=7 cows). Only cows that remained free of infection at each step progressed to the next phase. Infection rates were similar between AUI or HI cows following the DIP (9 and 17% respectively), or the TCI (75 and 68% respectively). Physical and biochemical traits of cows were examined. Analysis of traits prior to inoculations implied that HI cows produced more milk fat, while AUI cows tended to have longer teat canals. Analysis of traits for cows that became infected following DIP, implied that there was a positive association with milk fat production and negative association with somatic cell count (SCC), while there was a positive association with the duration of p.m. milking, and negative association with SCC in those cows that became infected following TCI. Only AUI cows became infected following the IC inoculation. Similarity in response to experimental inoculation between the two groups suggests that the current dip or teat canal inoculation (using a 3-mm depth of inoculation) models are not good predictors of natural resistance to Str. uberis. However, a population of cows was identified that remained uninfected after DIP, TCI and IC, and may comprise a resistant phenotype.

Introduction. The techniques presented allow a long-term conservation of Cylindrocladium strains to preserve them from major morphological and physiological changes. The principle of the methods applied, key advantages, starting plant material, time required and expected results are presented. Materials and methods. The necessary laboratory materials, and details of the nine steps achieved for the monospore purification of Cylindrocladium strains, their long-term maintenance, and the production of conidia and microsclerotia are described. Results. When revived, purified strains generate actively growing colonies within 48–72 h. Such colonies can then be readily used for conidia or microsclerotia production.

Introduction. This protocol aims at detecting Cylindrocladium spp. in root and soil samples from banana fields and at quantifying the inoculum. The principle of the two methods applied [Root Slice Plating Method (RSPM) and Soil Isolation Method (SIM)], the key advantages of these methods, starting plant and soil materials, the time required and the expected results are presented. Materials and methods. Necessary laboratory materials, and details of the six steps achieved for the use of the two methods are described. Results. When using the RSPM, typical Cylindrocladium colonies are isolated in petri dishes. When using the SIM, typical Cylindrocladium colonies originate from microsclerotia embedded or not in banana root tissue. The inoculum density can be calculated.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi colonization and response were studied in seedlings of 80 native woody species belonging to different successional groups from the Tibagi River Basin, Paraná State, south Brazil. This study includes data from 43 native woody species already published. The results with 80 species did not differ from the results of the 43 species. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse in plastic bags filled with a mix of subsoil (85%) and sand (15%), inoculated or not with spores of native AM fungi obtained from rhizosphere soil of different native tree species in an area with natural vegetation dominated by woody pioneer species. The successional groups were represented by 16 pioneer, 20 early secondary, 29 late-secondary and 15 climax species. The AM response and colonization in the greenhouse were 5.9 and 4.2 times greater in the early successional species than in the late-successional species, respectively. Seedlings of 49 woody species were collected in the interior under the canopy of the tropical forest of the Mata dos Godoy State Park and in a cleared area dominated by woody pioneer species. The percentage of AM colonization in the field was 54.9, 40.4, 7.2 and 3.1 for the pioneer, early secondary, late-secondary and climax species, respectively. The response to AM inoculation was strongly and directly related to AM colonization in the greenhouse and field and inversely related to seed weight. The AM colonization in the greenhouse was strongly and directly related to AM colonization in field. The late-successional species showed lower AM colonization and response than early successional species. The accentuated mycotrophism of the early successional species may be involved in their establishment, growth, survival and early forest structuring on low-fertility soils.

A series of laboratory and animal studies examined the use of chemical and biological agents to enhance the digestibility of Rhodes grass (grass) cut at 60 (young) and 100 (mature) days of regrowth and ensiled as big round bales. The treatments included an untreated control (C), a microbial inoculant (I), NaOH, CaO and NaOH plus inoculant (NaOH + I). Inoculant was grown anaerobically, using a starter culture of rumen fluid from cattle given Rhodes grass. Treatments C, I, NaOH, NaOH + I, were offered separately to twelve dairy heifers, in a 3 ✕ 4 randomized complete block design, repeated twice for each grass silage. C and I had substantial mould growth, compared with no visible mould in NaOH or NaOH + I. CaO treatment was effective in preventing mould growth, but had little effect on the chemical composition and in sacco digestibility of mature grass silage. NaOH reduced NDF content and increased in sacco digestibility (P < 0·05) but not the in vivo digestibility (P > 0·05) of both mature- and young-grass silage. The effects of other treatments on nutritive value were non-significant at both stages of maturity. NaOH increased the intake of mature-grass silage by 24-26% (P < 0·05), but had little effect on the intake of young-grass silage (P > 0·05). Treatment I consistently reduced grass silage intake (P < 0·05) for young-grass silage. The findings of these studies show that treating mature Rhodes grass with NaOH will improve its nutritive value and reduce mould growth in conserved herbage. However none of the treatments in this study had any consistently positive effects on the in vivo nutritive value or storage quality of young-grass silage.

Seedlings from 43 native woody species belonging to different successional groups from the Tibagi River Basin, Paraná State, South Brazil were studied to obtain information on the importance of colonization by native arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse for 15 to 45 wk, with soil-mix treatments and four successional groups. The mycorrhizal dependency was 90, 48, 12 and 14% of the pioneer, early secondary, late secondary and climax species, respectively. The content of P, Ca and K was 20, 17 and 23 times greater, respectively, in the leaves of the pioneer species than in the other successional groups. The colonization by AM fungi in field was studied in seedlings of 36 native woody species collected in the interior of the forest of the Mata dos Godoy State Park, and in open area at the beginning of arboreal succession. The mycorrhizal colonization in the field was 55.5, 26.9, 6.1 and 2.2% for the pioneer, early secondary, late secondary and climax species, respectively. To assess the mycorrhizal inoculum potential, rhizosphere soil was collected in the interior of the forest and a gap in the same forest and in a cleared area abandoned for natural regeneration. The inoculum potentials and the spore number in the area at the beginning of succession were 5.6 and 53.4 times greater than in the interior of the forest. The results show that the initial growth of the woody species which take part in the initial phases of succession may be more dependent on the AM fungi, in soils poor in minerals, while those that make up the final succession phases may be less dependent. The potential of the AM fungi inoculum decreases throughout the successional process and there is a relation between the inoculum potential found in the field and the occurrence for the different habitats of the species of adult plants belonging to different successional groups.

Eucalyptus species are considered to have ectomycorrhizas (ECM), but many also have vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM) and their relative importance is unclear. Interactions between ECM and VAM fungi colonizing roots of Eucalyptus species were examined in a glasshouse experiment. This experiment investigated competition between these two types of fungi and compared benefits provided to Eucalyptus globulus and E. urophylla. Eucalyptus seedlings were inoculated with spores of the ECM fungus Laccaria lateritia and/or pot- culture soil for a VAM fungus (species of Glomus, Acaulospora or Scutellospora). Initial inoculum levels were important, as VAM fungi became established much more rapidly than Laccaria. In plants with both types of mycorrhizas, Laccaria mycorrhizas substantially increased after 2 or 3 months and the proportion of roots with VAM declined. However, the proportion of roots with VAM also decreased significantly in plants without ECM after 2 months. Thus, the relative susceptibility of eucalypt roots to these mycorrhizal associations changed. Substantial growth responses to mycorrhizal inoculation occurred when a low concentration of phosphorus fertilization was used (5 mg kg−1), but not at a higher concentration (10 mg kg−1). Treatments where Laccaria was applied, alone or in combination with a VAM fungus, resulted in the largest growth increases relative to nonmycorrhizal plants. An Acaulospora isolate was the most effective VAM fungus for E. urophylla although other VAM fungi also increased growth relative to the control. VAM fungi alone had little effect on E. globulus growth, but plants inoculated with both ECM and VAM fungi were larger than plants only inoculated with Laccaria. ECM fungi had a major impact on root system form by reducing the proportion of fine roots (specific root length) relative to nonmycorrhizal plants or those with VAM. Changes in root colonization patterns over time must be considered in studies of ECM/VAM interactions, as there can be substantial changes in the relative importance of the two associations.

Culex quinquefasciatus (Wiedemann) mosquitoes, which are refractory to Brugia pahangi (Buckley and Edeson) microfilariae, were fed simultaneously on Wuchereria bancrofti (Cobbold) and B. pahangi microfilariae. A selected stock of Aedes aegypti (L) which is susceptible to both of these filariae was used as a control. The exsheathment and migration rates of B. pahangi in C. quinquefasciatus increased significantly as compared to those of B. pahangi when given as a feed by itself. These two processes did not show any trend with time. On dissection, 12 and 14 days postinfection, 27% of C. quinquefasciatus were found to be infected with an average of two larvae per mosquito. Of the total number of larvae found 78% were W. bancrofti while 22% were B. pahangi.

Feeding C. quinquefasciatus on in vitro exsheathed B. pahangi microfilariae suspended in serum did not increase the rate of migration, whereas 71–100% of Ae. aegypti became infected with a mean of 3.5 larvae per mosquito.

Inoculation of C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes into the thorax and abdomen with exsheathed B. pahangi did not increase their infection rate, whereas in Ae. aegypti 67–82% became infected.