Explains the reasons for increased black market activity in France after Liberation, including the new black market for US Army goods, and the rising frustration of consumers, shopkeepers, farmers and intermediaries with the operation of price controls and rationing. This opposition resisted price control efforts in some cities and developed into a massive, organized wave of protest against control enforcement in spring 1947, forcing the state to retreat from enforcement of controls.

This chapter examines the identity construction and related stigmatization within the framing contest of desmovilizados (deserters) versus reincorporados (loyalists). While this contest is primarily amongst groups of ex-combatants themselves, the government also plays a role not only by encouraging desertion, but also by contesting both sides, grouping all ex-combatants under the same criminal label, and discrediting any frame constructed by combatants and/or ex-combatants. While this contest is much less structured and the frames emerged more organically – particularly as the deserters do not have a clear leadership constructing a strategic frame for them, nor a clearly defined audience – it was still having a powerful influence on reintegration experiences. In this last contest, which overlaps with all the others, language and labelling are key, as these components both create stigma and help ex-combatants fight against it.