Weedy rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea Auct. ex Backer) is a troublesome annual weed from the Gramineae family and infests rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields globally, with a notable presence in China. However, limited information is available regarding the effects of diverse environmental factors on its germination and emergence. A better understanding of the seed biology and ecology of weedy rice is crucial for developing effective weed management strategies. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of temperature, light, soil burial depth, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop residue amount, salt stress, osmotic stress, and radiant heat on the germination and seedling emergence of weedy rice. Weedy rice exhibited robust germination (>98%) when exposed to varying day/night temperatures (20/15 to 35/30 C) and remained unaffected by light conditions. Seedling emergence was not influenced within the top 5-cm soil layer, where 100% of the seedlings emerged. However, emergence decreased as the soil burial depth increased, eventually resulting in no emergence from a burial depth of 11 cm. The soil burial depth required for 50% of the maximum emergence was 8.3 cm. Seedling emergence ranged from 97% to 100% across different amounts of the wheat straw residue cover (0 to 10,000 kg ha−1). The sodium chloride concentration and osmotic potential required for 50% were 230.8 mM and −0.5 MPa, respectively. No germination was observed when weedy rice seeds were exposed to >110 C pretreatment (radiant heat for 5 min), indicating that residue burning could reduce infestation of weedy rice. The insights gained from this study contribute valuable knowledge to enhance the integrated management of weedy rice in China.

Slender Russian thistle (Salsola collina Pall.) is a troublesome weed distributed mainly in the cropping regions of northern China that produces heteromorphic seeds in the same plant. However, limited information is available on the germination ecology of heteromorphic seeds in S. collina. Thus, the present study was conducted to verify the effect of alternating temperature conditions, light conditions, winged perianth, salt concentrations, water stress, and burial depths on the seed germination or seedling emergence of S. collina. The results showed that S. collina produced two different types of fruits/seeds that significantly differed in seed size, seed color, external structure, and germination/dormancy behavior. The type A seeds (green seeds) were nondormant, and the germination percentage was >96% at all alternating day/night temperatures and light conditions; whereas type B seeds (yellow seeds) exhibited dormancy characteristics and poor germination (≤1%). Moreover, the winged perianth did not inhibit the germination of S. collina green seeds. The germination of green seeds declined rapidly when NaCl concentration exceeded 100 mM, and only 2.22% germination was observed at 600 mM NaCl. About 62.00% of green seeds germinated at −0.6 MPa, and 8.00% germination was obtained at −1.2 MPa. The seedling emergence declined with an increase of burial depth, and decreased sharply when the burial depth exceeded 1.0 cm. Only 8.33% seedling emergence occurred at a burial depth of 4.0 cm. The results gathered from present study will help to illustrate the ecological adaptation strategy of S. collina and indicate that shallow tillage can effectively minimize the seedling emergence of S. collina.

Tropical ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides L.) is a problematic weed frequently observed in association with commercially important crops in Australian agroecosystems. Knowledge of the germination response of A. conyzoides is crucial for proactively managing this weed species, especially when herbicide resistance is involved. Herbicide screening and metsulfuron dose–response experiments were conducted on two separate populations of A. conyzoides (referred to as Sugarcane and Roadside) in an open environment to identify a metsulfuron-resistant population. Based on the survival percentage in the metsulfuron dose–response experiment, the Sugarcane population was found to be 54 times more resistant compared with the metsulfuron-susceptible population (Roadside). Subsequent laboratory experiments were performed to investigate the differential germination response of the two populations. No germination or emergence difference was observed between the Sugarcane and Roadside populations under various thermal regimes (15/5 to 35/25 C with a 12/12-h photoperiod), salinity levels (0 to 320 mM), osmotic potentials (0 to −1.6 MPa), and burial depths (1 to 4 cm). However, different environmental conditions significantly impacted the germination and emergence of A. conyzoides. Ageratum conyzoides germinated over a wide range of temperatures, with the highest germination rate (>90%) occurring at 30/20 C. With increasing levels of salinity, osmotic potential, and burial depth, the germination/emergence of A. conyzoides declined and was completely inhibited at 300 mM salinity, −0.8 MPa osmotic potential, and a 1-cm burial depth. The data generated from this study will be useful in developing a model-based approach to predict the occurrence of this weed species and thus aid in designing ecologically sustainable integrated weed management protocols.

Fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis Poir.) has invaded and colonized numerous habitats in the coastal areas of southeastern Australia and is a major weed in cultivated lands as well as in poorly grassed, neglected, and highly grazed pastures. To examine the seed germination ecology of two populations (Felton and Gatton) of S. madagascariensis, experiments were conducted in the laboratory and screen house. The germination of both populations increased as the alternating temperatures increased from the coolest temperatures (15/5 C) to warmer temperatures (25/15 C). However, the highest temperature regime (35/25 C) resulted in the lowest germination rates. The Gatton population exhibited greater tolerance to higher temperatures, resulting in significantly higher germination (2.4 times) than the Felton population at the highest alternating temperature of 35/25 C. Compared with the Felton population, the Gatton population demonstrated higher tolerance to salt and water stress. In comparison to alternating light and dark periods (12 h each) (97% to 98%), the germination of both populations of S. madagascariensis was significantly reduced under complete darkness (24 h) (33% to 39%). A screen house seed burial depth experiment revealed similar emergence of S. madagascariensis seedlings between the populations. The maximum emergence (60%) was observed for seeds placed at the soil surface, followed by a dramatic decline in seedling emergence with an increase in depth. No seedlings emerged from a burial depth of 4 cm. With the addition of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop residue to the soil surface at rates comparable to 4,000 to 8,000 kg ha−1, seedling emergence of S. madagascariensis decreased significantly. Information acquired from this study could be utilized to manage and develop effective weed management strategies for controlling S. madagascariensis in different agroecological conditions.

Cichorium glandulosum Boiss. et Huet is a species that has recently spread widely in the autumn crops of northwestern Iran. A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of environmental factors on the germination, emergence, and management of two populations of C. glandulosum. The effects of temperature, photoperiod, NaCl concentration, osmotic potential, seed burial depth, and straw mulch on seed germination and seedling emergence were evaluated for two populations of C. glandulosum from Tabriz and Marand, Iran. The highest germination percentage was observed in the Tabriz (93%) and Marand populations (94%) at 20/10 C (day/night). In both populations, germination was 82% to 93% across a wide range of light/dark periods (8 to 24 h of light). However, germination was significantly reduced (∼70%) under continuous darkness. The osmotic potential required to inhibit 50% of germination was 0.68 MPa for the Tabriz population and 0.62 MPa for the Marand population. The concentration of NaCl required to inhibit 50% of germination was 4.76 dS m−1 for the Tabriz population and 3.81 dS m−1 for the Marand population. The seed burial depths that caused a 50% decrease in emergence for the Tabriz and Marand populations were 1.86 cm and 2.22 cm, respectively. In the Tabriz and Marand populations, the application of 6000 kg ha−1 of straw mulch resulted in a decrease in C. glandulosum emergence to 3% and 10%, respectively. This study’s results inform the conditions required for C. glandulosum germination and establish a theoretical and practical foundation for predicting, preventing, and managing this species using scientific principles.

Goosegrass [Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.] is one of the most problematic grassy weeds in the world. It is considered to be an important weed in summer fallows and crops grown in the eastern region of Australia. To examine the seed germination ecology of two populations (Gatton and Ingham) of E. indica and their response to postemergence herbicides in Australian conditions, experiments were carried out in the laboratory and screenhouse. Seedling survival, spike production, and plant biomass of both E. indica populations declined markedly with the application of postemergence herbicides such as butroxydim, clethodim, glufosinate, haloxyfop, and propaquizafop, whereas the application of paraquat failed to control the Ingham population. A dose–response study verified the presence of paraquat resistance in the Ingham population. In this regard, it was observed that the paraquat doses required to achieve a 50% reduction in survival and plant biomass were 27 and 21 times greater in the Ingham population compared to the Gatton population, respectively. Higher alternating temperatures (35/25 and 30/20 C) resulted in greater germination of both populations than lower alternating temperatures (20/10 and 25/15 C). At 20/10 C, the Ingham population failed to germinate; however, about 15% germination in the Gatton population was observed. At the lowest alternate temperature range (15/5 C), neither population germinated. The germination of both populations of E. indica was severely reduced under completely dark conditions compared with the alternating light/dark period. Germination was more tolerant of salt and water stress in the Ingham population compared with the Gatton population. Eleusine indica seedling emergence was comparable among populations, and the greatest emergence (83%) was observed for seeds buried at a depth of 2 cm but then declined dramatically, and no seedlings emerged from an 8-cm burial depth. The information acquired from this study could be used in developing effective management strategies for E. indica.

Prostrate water primrose is a troublesome weed in rice paddy fields. A study was conducted to determine the influence of environmental and agronomic factors on its emergence. The efficacy of herbicides on this species was also examined. The germination percentage of mature seeds remained above 90% within 180 d after harvest, indicating a low primary dormancy of this species. Light stimulated seed germination. Seeds buried deeper than 0.5 cm did not form seedlings. These results suggest that stale seedbed practices and deep tillage operations can mitigate the occurrence of this species in paddy fields. The optimum temperature for germination varied from 25/15 C to 35/25 C. The osmotic potential and salt concentration needed to inhibit 50% of maximum germination were −0.4 MPa and 197 mM, respectively. Seeds were tolerant to flooding and did not germinate at pH 8 to 10. The preemergence herbicides oxadiazon, oxadiargyl, and butachlor had excellent control efficacy on prostrate water primrose, with a 95.4% to 100% reduction in seedling number and a 99.2% to 100% reduction in biomass, respectively. The postemergence herbicides MCPA-Na + bentazone, bentazone, MCPA-Na, and fluroxypyr applied at the 2- to 3-leaf stage of prostrate water primrose provided a 90.6% to 100% reduction in seedling number and a 99.3% to 100% reduction in biomass. The results of this study can help in developing sustainable and effective integrated weed management strategies for controlling prostrate water primrose in paddy fields.

Liverseedgrass (Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv.) is one of the most important summer grass weed species in the eastern cropping system of Australia. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of temperature, salt stress, water stress, burial depth, and sorghum crop residue load on germination and emergence of U. panicoides and the performance of postemergence herbicides on this weed species. The optimal germination temperature regimes for U. panicoides were 30/20 and 35/25 C (alternating day/night temperatures), but seeds also germinated at temperatures occurring in winter, spring, and autumn in Australia (15/5, 20/10, and 25/15 C). A concentration of 48 mM sodium chloride and −0.27 MPa osmotic potential inhibited germination of U. panicoides by 50%, indicating that this weed species is not salt and drought tolerant at germination. The maximum germination was obtained for the surface seeds; a burial depth of 1.9 cm inhibited emergence by 50%. No seedlings emerged from the 12-cm depth, but about 3% of seedlings emerged from the 8 cm depth. The addition of sorghum residue amounts up to 8,000 kg ha−1 to the soil surface stimulated U. panicoides’ emergence compared with the no-residue treatment, suggesting that conservation agriculture will promote the emergence of U. panicoides. Several postemergence herbicides were found to be effective in controlling this weed species, especially when applied at an early stage. Information obtained from this study will help to develop effective and sustainable control measures for U. panicoides and other weed species with similar germination requirements.

Leucaena [Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit] is a perennial weed in more than 25 countries, including Australia. Knowledge regarding the seed biology of L. leucocephala could help in making weed management decisions. Experiments were conducted to study the effect of hot water (scarification), alternating temperatures, heat stress, salt stress, water stress, and burial depth on seed germination of two populations of L. leucocephala collected from Toowoomba and Gatton, Australia. The optimum duration of hot water treatment to break the hard seed coat dormancy was 2 min for both populations. The highest germination (92% to 98%) was recorded at 35/25 C for both populations, and similar germination occurred at 30/20 C. The Toowoomba population recorded greater germination at low temperature (15/5 to 25/15 C) than the Gatton population. Additionally, the Gatton population had higher germination than the Toowoomba population after 5 min of exposure to temperatures of up to 100 C, suggesting that the Gatton population may be more tolerant to heat stress. Germination was completely inhibited at pretreatment (5 min) temperatures of 150 to 250 C. The Toowoomba population recorded 17% greater germination than the Gatton population at a high salt concentration (160 mM NaCl), indicating its greater salt tolerance. At low moisture stress (−0.1 and −0.2 MPa), higher germination was observed in the Toowoomba population than in the Gatton population, whereas germination was similar for both populations at higher water stress levels (−0.4 MPa or lower). Germination was similar for both populations at shallow depths (0 and 1 cm) but higher emergence was recorded for the Toowoomba population at 2 to 8 cm than the Gatton population. Differential germination behaviors of both populations suggest that they adapted differently in their respective local environments. Knowledge gained from this study will help in formulating integrated management practices for L. leucocephala.

Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.) is a widespread weed of the southeastern cropping region of Australia. Seed germination ecology of S. arvensis populations selected from different climatic regions may differ due to adaptative traits. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of temperature, light, radiant heat, soil moisture, salt concentration, and burial depth on seed germination and seedling emergence of two populations (Queensland [Qld] population: tropical region; and Victoria [Vic] population: temperate region) of S. arvensis. Both populations germinated over a wide range of day/night (12-h/12-h) temperatures (15/5 to 35/25 C), and had the highest germination at 30/20 C. Under complete darkness, the Qld population (61%) had higher germination than the Vic population (21%); however, under the light/dark regime, both populations had similar germination (78% to 86%). At 100 C pretreatment for 5 min, the Qld population (44%) had higher germination than the Vic population (13%). Germination of both populations was nil when given pretreatment at 150 and 200 C. The Vic population was found tolerant to high osmotic and salt stress compared with the Qld population. At an osmotic potential of −0.4 MPa, germination of Qld and Vic populations was reduced by 85% and 42%, respectively, compared with their respective controls. At 40, 80, and 160 mM sodium chloride, germination was lower for the Qld population than the Vic population. Averaged over the populations, seedling emergence was highest (52%) from a burial depth of 1 cm and was nil from 8-cm depth. Differential germination behaviors of both populations to temperature, light, radiant heat, water stress, and salt stress suggest that populations of S. arvensis may have undergone differential adaptation. Knowledge gained from this study will assist in developing suitable control measures for this weed species to reduce the soil seedbank.

Sumatran fleabane [Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) Walker] is an emerging weed in the Australian cropping region. Populations resistant to glyphosate have evolved in Australia, creating the demand for information regarding the seed germination ecology of glyphosate-resistant (R) and glyphosate-susceptible (S) populations of C. sumatrensis. A study was conducted to examine the effects of temperature, light intensity, salt stress, osmotic stress, and burial depth on the germination and emergence of two populations (R and S) of C. sumatrensis. Both populations were able to germinate over a wide range of alternating day/night temperatures (15/5 to 35/25 C). In light/dark conditions, the R population had higher germination than the S population at 20/10 and 35/25 C. In the dark, the R population had higher germination than the S population at 25/15 C. In the dark, germination was inhibited at 30/20 C and above. Averaged over populations, seed germination of C. sumatrensis was reduced by 97% at zero light intensity (completely dark conditions) compared with full light intensity. Seed germination of C. sumatrensis was reduced by 17% and 85% at osmotic potentials of −0.4, and −0.8 MPa, respectively, compared with the control treatment. The R population had lower germination (57%) than the S population (72%) at a sodium chloride concentration of 80 mM. Seed germination was highest on the soil surface and emergence was reduced by 87% and 90% at burial depths of 0.5 and 1.0 cm, respectively. Knowledge gained from this study suggests that a shallow-tillage operation to bury weed seeds in conventional tillage systems and retention of high residue cover on the soil surface in zero-till systems may inhibit the germination of C. sumatrensis. This study also warrants that the R population may have a greater risk of invasion over a greater part of a year due to germination over a broader temperature range.

Herbicide resistance is an increasing issue in many weed species, including rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaudin); a major weed of winter cropping systems in southern Australia. Recently, this weed has also been found in summer crops in the southeastern region of Australia. Effective control of this herbicide-resistant weed across southeastern Australia requires alternative management strategies. These strategies can be informed by analyses on the interaction of germinable seeds with their regional environments and by identifying the differences between populations of varying herbicide-resistance levels. In this study, we explore how various environmental factors differentially affect the seed germination and seedling emergence of three L. rigidum populations, including one glyphosate-resistant population (GR), one glyphosate-susceptible population (GS), and one population of unknown resistance status (CC04). Germination was greater than 90% for all populations at each temperature regime, except 15/5 C. Populations germinated at a lower rate under 15/5 C, ranging from 74% to 87% germination. Salt stress had a similar effect on the germination of all populations, with 0% germination occurring at 250 mM salt stress. Population GS had greater tolerance to osmotic stress, with 65% germination at −0.4 MPa compared with 47% and 43% germination for CC04 and GR, respectively; however, germination was inhibited at −0.8 and −1.6 MPa for all populations. All populations had lower germination when placed in complete darkness as opposed to alternating light/dark. Germination in darkness was lower for CC04 (69%) than GR (83%) and GS (83%). Seedling emergence declined with increasing burial depth with the lowest emergence occuring at 8 cm (37%) when averaged over the populations. These results indicate that L. rigidum can survive under a range of environmental variables and that the extent of survival differs based on population; however, there was no difference based on herbicide-resistance status.

Navua sedge [Cyperus aromaticus (Ridley) Mattf. & Kük.] is an aggressive perennial sedge native to equatorial Africa that has become problematic in many Pacific islands and wet, tropical Queensland, Australia. It has had a significant impact on the livestock-grazing industry, sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) and banana (Musa acuminata Colla) plantations, and various other ecosystems. A laboratory-based research investigation was conducted to understand germination and emergence requirements under various environmental conditions of three geographically varied populations sourced from South Johnstone (SJ), Mackay (M) and Nyleta Creek (NC) in Queensland. Germination was identified to be stimulated by light, with no germination recorded under darkness. Populations SJ and NC had optimal germination at alternating temperatures of 25/15, 30/20, and 35/25 C, whereas population M had optimal germination at 25/15 and 30/20 C. All populations recorded greater than 85% germination at all pH levels tested. Seeds of population SJ were more sensitive to salinity compared with populations M and NC, with SJ showing no germination at 100 mM, whereas populations M and NC had 23% and 9% germination, respectively. An inverse relationship was observed between osmotic potential and germination, with no germination recorded at osmotic potentials below −0.8 MPa in any population, indicating moisture availability is a critical requirement for germination. Exposing seeds to 120 C radiant heat completely inhibited germination in populations M and NC, whereas 3% of population SJ germinated following a 180-s exposure at 120 C. Seedling emergence decreased as planting depth increased. Emergence was greatest for seeds on the soil surface or at 0.5-cm burial depth, consistent with germination being stimulated by light. Knowledge of these biological characteristics of C. aromaticus seed germination will assist in investigation of suitable control actions for this species, particularly in the early stage of its invasion into new areas, and will contribute to significant reduction in the soil seedbank.

Drunken horse grass [Achnatherum inebrians (Hance) Keng] is a perennial poisonous weed in western China. A comprehensive understanding of the ecological response of A. inebrians germination to environmental factors would facilitate the formulation of better management strategies for this weed. Experiments were conducted under laboratory conditions to assess the effects of various abiotic factors, including temperature, light, water, pH, and burial depth, on the germination and seedling emergence of A. inebrians. The seeds germinated at constant temperatures of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 C and in alternating-temperature regimes of 15/5, 20/10, 25/15, 30/20, 35/25, and 40/30 C, and the germination percentages under constant and alternating temperatures ranged from 51% to 94% and 15% to 93%, respectively. Maximum germination occurred at a constant temperature of 25 C, and germination was prevented at 45/35 C. Light did not appear to affect germination. The germination percentage of seeds was more than 75% in the pH range of 5 to 10, with the highest germination percentage at pH 6. The seeds germinated at osmotic potentials of 0 MPa to −1.0 MPa, but decreasing osmotic potential inhibited germination, with no germination at −1.2MPa. After 21 d of low osmotic stress, the seeds that did not germinate after rehydration had not lost their vitality. The seedling emergence percentage was highest (90%) when seeds were buried at 1 cm, but declined with increasing burial depth, with no emergence at 9 cm. Deep tillage may be effective in limiting the germination and emergence of this species. The results of this study provide useful information on the conditions necessary for A. inebrians germination and provide a theoretical basis for science-based prediction, prevention, and control of this species.

Dwarf amaranth (Amaranthus macrocarpus Benth.) is a problematic broadleaf weed in many crops in Australia; however, no information is available on the germination ecology of this species. Seeds from two populations of this species were collected from Hillston, NSW, Australia (D-P-01), and Yandilla, QLD, Australia (D-P-02). Seeds were germinated at a range of constant (20 to 45 C) and alternating temperatures (30/20, 35/25, 40/30, and 45/35 C day/night). For the constant temperature treatments, the highest germination occurred at 35 C for D-P-01 (89%) and D-P-02 (82%). Germination was higher at the alternating day/night temperature of 40/30 C for both populations D-P-01 (91%) and D-P-02 (85%). Seed germination of both populations was stimulated by light, which indicates a great amount of emergence of A. macrocarpus can occur on bare ground such as crop seed beds. Results also revealed that this species tolerates a moderate level of salinity and can germinate in slightly alkaline soil conditions. The emergence of this species was highest (47%) for the seed buried at 0.5-cm depth in grey cracking alkaline soil compared with seed buried at the same depth in acidic red soils. These results suggest that soil inversion by tillage to bury weed seeds below their maximum emergence depth could serve as an important tool for managing A. macrocarpus. The results from this study will help in developing more sustainable and effective integrated weed management tactics for the control of this weed and weeds with similar responses in summer cropping systems.

Giant chickweed [Myosoton aquaticum (L.) Moench], a troublesome broadleaf weed species, is widespread in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fields in China. However, limited information is available on its germination and seedling emergence ecology. Thus, three M. aquaticum populations (JS, HN, and AH) from different geographic regions were studied under laboratory conditions to determine the effects of different environmental factors on germination or seedling emergence. The seeds germinated at a relatively wide constant temperature range of 5 to 25 C; however, the optimal temperature for germination varied among the populations. Compared with constant temperatures, fluctuating temperatures with the same mean significantly improved the final germination of all populations. Light was not required for germination. The seeds germinated under a wide pH range of 3 to 10, and the optimum pH was 6 to 7, with a final germination percentage of 81% to 95%. The seeds of all populations showed similar sensitivities to osmotic potential and similar high tolerances of saline conditions. The seedling emergence of all populations decreased with increasing burial depth, and no emergence was observed when the seeds were buried more than 3 cm, but the AH population showed higher sensitivity to burial depth than the others. The results generated from this study will contribute to the development of integrated M. aquaticum management strategies for winter wheat fields in China, and deep plowing and late sowing of autumn-sown wheat are suggested for managing M. aquaticum, as it showed lower germination at a low temperature and under relatively deep burial.

Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of various environmental factors and burial depth on germination and seedling emergence of common beggar’s-tick [Bidens alba (L.) DC.] seeds at two different stages of afterripening. Mature B. alba seeds were stored at 4 C for 3 to 5 mo (new seed lot) and 13 to 15 mo (old seed lot) until experiment initiation. Germination exponentially decreased with increasing moisture stress. Germination rate decreased from 87 ± 2.9% to 13 ± 6.1% as osmotic potential decreased from 0 to −0.5 MPa and was completely inhibited at osmotic potentials below −0.83 MPa. A large portion of the new seeds tested positively photoblastic, but seeds that had afterripened for 1 additional year were partially desensitized to the light requirement. New and old seeds still germinated to a greater percentage in the presence of light than under continuous dark at temperatures ranging from 15 to 35 C. Both new and old seeds germinated over a range of temperatures from 5 to 35 C, but the optimum temperatures for germination was 15 to 30 C in the presence of light. Regardless of seed lot, seedling emergence was the greatest when seeds were sown at the soil surface. Seedling emergence was abruptly reduced when burial depth was 1 cm or greater. Based on these results, we conclude that shallow cultivation could effectively suppress this population of B. alba from emerging when incorporated into an integrated control strategy. The information obtained in this research identifies some important factors that facilitate the widespread presence of B. alba in Florida and may contribute to weed management programs.

Hairy fleabane [Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist] is a problematic weed in Australian no-till cropping systems. Consequently, a study was conducted to examine the effect of temperature, light, salt stress, osmotic stress, burial depth, and sorghum crop residue on germination and emergence in two populations (C and W: collected from chick pea [Cicer arietinum L.] and wheat [Triticum aestivum L.] fields, respectively) of C. bonariensis. Both populations were able to germinate over a wide range of alternating day/night temperatures (15/5 to 35/25 C); however, the C population had optimum (and similar) germination over the range of 20/10 and 30/20 C, while the W population showed maximum germination at 25/15 C. A negative relationship was observed between osmotic potential and germination, with 31% and 14% germination of the C and W populations at −0.6 MPa, respectively. These observations suggest that population C was more tolerant to higher osmotic potentials than population W. Seeds of both populations germinated when exposed to a wide range of sodium chloride levels (NaCl, 0 to 200 mM); however, beyond 200 mM NaCl, no germination was observed in either population. Maximum germination of the C (70%) and W (41%) populations was observed on the soil surface with no emergence from a burial depth of 1 cm. The application of sorghum residue at an amount of 6,000 kg ha−1 reduced emergence of the C and W populations by 55% and 58%, respectively, compared with the no-residue treatment. Knowledge gained from this study suggests that the following strategies could be used for more efficacious management of C. bonariensis: (1) a shallow-tillage operation to bury weed seeds in conventional tillage systems, and (2) retention of sorghum residue on the soil surface in no-till systems.

Common seepweed [Suaeda glauca (Bunge) Bunge] is a common salt-tolerant weed species distributed across the agricultural regions of northern China. It produces dimorphic seeds with different phenotypic characteristics and seed sizes. However, there is no information regarding the germination biology of these dimorphic seeds. Studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of ecological factors such as temperature, light, pH, osmotic stress, salt concentration, and planting depth on seed germination and seedling emergence. The results showed that brown seeds were nondormant, whereas black seeds had an intermediate physiological dormancy. The germination percentage of brown seeds was more than 80% at all temperature regimes and light conditions, but the optimum germination occurred at the cold thermoperiod of 20/10 C. In contrast, less than 6% of black seeds germinated at all temperature regimes and light conditions. Eight weeks of cold stratification did not break the dormancy of black seeds, whereas low concentrations of gibberellic acid (0.1 and 1.0 mM) significantly increased seed germination. Removal of the testa of black seeds also promoted germination and produced normal seedlings. Brown seeds showed moderate tolerance to salt stress, with 16% germination percentage at a salt concentration of 600 mM NaCl. The germination of brown seeds was 38% at an osmotic potential stress of −0.8 MPa; above that, no germination was obtained. Brown seeds germinated well in a wide pH range (4 to 10), with a germination percentage higher than 95%. Seedling emergence percentage was higher than 90% at burial depths of 0 to 2 cm, while germination percentage severely decreased for brown seeds with burial depths >2 cm, indicating that shallow tillage could be an effective measure to minimize seed germination. Information gathered from this study will help to develop an effective protocols for controlling S. glauca.