The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of guarana supplementation on cognitive performance before and after a bout of maximal intensity cycling and to compare this to an equivalent caffeine dose. Twenty-five participants completed the randomised double-blind crossover trial by performing cognitive tests with one of three supplements, on three different days: guarana (125 mg/kg), caffeine (5 mg/kg) or placebo (65 mg/kg protein powder). After 30 min of rest, participants performed simple (SRT) and choice reaction time (CRT) tests, an immediate word recall test and Bond–Lader mood scale. This was followed by a cycling V̇O2max test, and cognitive tests were then immediately repeated. Guarana supplementation decreased CRT before exercise (407 (sd 45) ms) in comparison with placebo (421 (sd 46) ms, P = 0·030) but not caffeine (417 (sd 42) ms). SRT after exercise decreased following guarana supplementation (306 (sd 28) ms) in comparison with placebo (323 (sd 32) ms, P = 0·003) but not caffeine (315 (sd 32) ms). Intra-individual variability on CRT significantly improved from before (111·4 (sd 60·5) ms) to after exercise (81·85 (sd 43·1) ms) following guarana supplementation, and no differences were observed for caffeine and placebo (P > 0·05). Alertness scores significantly improved following guarana supplementation (63·3 (sd 13·8)) in comparison with placebo (57·4 (sd 13·4), P = 0·014) but not caffeine (61·2 (sd 12·8)). There were no changes to V̇O2max, immediate word recall or any other Bond–Lader mood scales. Guarana supplementation appears to impact several parameters of cognition. These results support the use of guarana supplementation to possibly maintain speed of attention immediately following a maximal intensity exercise test (V̇O2max).

From 20,000 households regularly surveyed by a national survey institute (Sofres), two groups were selected and questioned (using a 23-item questionnaire) about sleep vigilance and quality of life. The first group was composed of insomniacs using zopiclone for the last 12 months and no other CNS treatments (167 subjects). The second group was composed of 381 “good sleepers” selected as having no or occasionally one sleep disturbance in the last 12 months. No difference was found between the two groups in average total sleep time. Sleep disturbances were statistically equal in the two groups except for difficulties in initiating sleep which is more present for zopiclone users (13% vs 3%). Vigilance was mostly comparable in both groups.Five aspects of quality of life explored by the questionnaires (the professional, relational and sentimental, domestic, leisure and safety aspects) appeared to be comparable in the two groups.

Is entrepreneurship an innate ability or an acquired skill? Can entrepreneurial acumen be achieved and enhanced through education and training, or are certain people “born” to be entrepreneurs or to act entrepreneurially? Economists and management theorists give widely divergent answers to these questions. This paper reviews the major approaches to teaching entrepreneurship, primarily at the undergraduate level, and relates them to economic theories of entrepreneurship. Surprisingly, we find little connection between the leading approaches to entrepreneurship education and economists' understanding of the entrepreneurial function. We assess likely explanations for the lack of contact between these two groups of scholars and suggest possible improvements.

Export decisions depend on a wide variety of information stimuli. The current research focuses on the attention that international entrepreneurs (IEs) dedicate to different information stimuli relating to how the firm operates internationally, and examines whether the IE's attention varies in function of their experience and knowledge. For their empirical analysis, the authors study the information interests of the IEs in the Spanish natural stone industry. They identify three centres of interest: the strategic attractiveness of the foreign markets, barriers to exporting, and support programmes for exporters. The results show that the IEs are most interested in information about support programmes, and that is due to IEs with scant knowledge about the export markets. As the IEs accumulate knowledge about which are the main export markets, they become more interested in information about the strategic attractiveness of these markets. The authors conclude that a trade-off exists between the information about market attractiveness and the information about support programmes in the IE's attention. In contrast, attention towards export barriers behaves independently and depends on the IE's experience.

Clinical, experimental, and functional imaging studies suggest overlapping neuronal networks and functional interactions of alertness and visuospatial attention within the right hemisphere of the brain. To examine the interaction of arousal and visuospatial attention in peripersonal and extrapersonal virtual space, we tested 20 healthy male adults during 24 hr of sleep deprivation at four points during the night (9 p.m., 1 a.m., 5 a.m., and 9 a.m.). The main finding concerning covert orienting in a virtual environment is a highly significant slowing of reorientation toward the left visual hemifield in extrapersonal space due to decreased arousal. The results provide additional evidence for the proposed anatomical and functional overlap of the two attentional systems and indicate a modulation of visuospatial attention by the level of arousal in extrapersonal space. (JINS, 2008, 14, 309–317.)

Objective: To evaluate sleep and alertness and to investigate the presence of possible underlying sleep/wake disorders in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Method: After 3 nights of adaptation in a room reserved for sleep studies in the department of child psychiatry, children underwent polysomnography (PSG) followed by the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) and reaction time tests (RT) during the daytime. Thirty boys diagnosed as having ADHD (DSM-IV), aged between 5 and 10 years, and 22 age- and sex-matched controls participated in the study. All children were medication-free and showed no clinical signs of sleep and alertness problems. Results: No significant differences in sleep variables were found between boys with ADHD and controls. The mean latency period was shorter in children with ADHD. Significant differences were found for MSLT 1, 2 and 3 (p<.05). Mean reaction time was longer in children with ADHD, with significant differences in all tests (p<.05). Number and duration of sleep onsets measured by the MSLT correlated significantly with the hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattentive- passivity indices of the CTRS and CPRS. Conclusion: Children with ADHD were more sleepy during the day, as shown by the MSLT, and they had longer reaction times. These differences are not due to alteration in the quality of nocturnal sleep. The number of daytime sleep onsets and the rapidity of sleep-onsets measured as MSLT were found to be pertinent physiological indices to discriminate between ADHD subtypes. These results suggest that children with ADHD have a deficit in alertness. Whether this deficit is primary or not requires further studies.