A growing number of institutions that hold cultural heritage artifacts are now considering voluntary repatriations in which they choose to return an artifact despite unfilled gaps in their knowledge of its ownership history. But how are institutions to judge whether it is more probable that such gaps conceal theft and illicit export or are innocuous? Attempting to answer this question for Nepal, we examine published and archival records to trace the history of the growth in collecting of Nepali cultural heritage in the United States, with special attention to a 1964 exhibition at New York’s Asia Society Gallery, “The Art of Nepal,” and the activity of the New York dealers Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck. We conclude that the majority of Nepali heritage items in America entered after Nepal prohibited their export.

In sediments, clay minerals are mainly detrital. Formed by continental weathering, they are carried by surface transport predominantly by rivers, glaciers and, to a lesser extent, winds to the adjacent sedimentary basins and then are redistributed by oceanic currents. In a sedimentary core, the variability in the clay mineral assemblages reflects either variable physical and chemical weathering conditions in the watershed, typically with a significant link to climatic conditions, or changes in the mineral source, the latter being associated with various transport agents. When different sources are involved, a combination of mineralogical and geochemical proxies allows us to trace the detrital provenance, but they also indirectly provide valuable information on transport pathways and palaeocurrents. This manuscript reviews several examples from the literature and ongoing research on clay mineral variability in marine or lacustrine sedimentary records and interprets them in terms of: (1) climate control at different timescales, from the Neogene to the Quaternary; and (2) transport paths. Examples are selected to review the various clay-derived proxies in existence.

Mineralogy, O18/O16, and D/H ratios have been determined in five size fractions (<0.1, 0.1–0.5, 0.5–1.0, 1.0–2.0, and >2.0µm) of seven samples taken from 500 m of Pleistocene deep-sea sediments cored at Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 180 in the Aleutian Trench. The depositional age of the samples spans the last 300,000 years; the samples have been interpreted by others to be continental detritus weathered from a mixed igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary source area and then deposited by ice-rafting and turbidity currents. The minerals present are quartz, feldspar, illite, chlorite and/or non-expandable vermiculite, and expandable vermiculite and/or mixed-layer illite/expandable vermiculite. The relative amounts of quartz, feldspar, and total clay vary with particle size, but are nearly constant from sample to sample for a given particle size. δO18 is values of the four coarser size fractions range from +9.7 to +12.0‰ with variations attributable to changes in quartz/feldspar and clay/(quartz + feldspar) abundances. Values of δO18 for the expandable vermiculite-rich <0.1-µm size fraction range from +12.1 to +16.3‰ which indicates some oxygen isotope exchange at surface temperatures between meteoric waters and the parent rock during vermiculite formation. Values of δD range from −46 to −74‰ with variations attributable to changes in amounts of different clay minerals present. There is no mineralogic or isotopic evidence of post-depositional reactions in the coarser size fractions, but a general change in δD of the vermiculite-rich, <0.1-µm size fraction from about −50‰ to about −70‰ with increasing depth may be due either to post-depositional isotopic exchange or to climatic changes in the terrestrial weathering environment.

The geochemistry of lake sediments provides valuable information on environmental conditions and geochemical processes in polar regions. To characterize geochemical composition and to analyse weathering and provenance, 26 lakes located in six islands of the South Shetland Islands (SSI) and James Ross Archipelago (JRA) were analysed. Regarding major composition, the studied lake sediments correspond to ferruginous mudstones and to a lesser extent to mudstones. The weathering indices indicate incipient chemical alteration (Chemical Index of Alteration = 52.6; Plagioclase Index of Alteration = 57.6). The La-Th-Sc plot shows different provenance signatures. SSI lake sediments correspond to oceanic island arcs, whereas those of JRA denote a signal of continental arcs with mixed sources. In James Ross Island lake sediments are of continental arcs (inland lakes), oceanic island arcs (coastal lakes) and a middle signature (foreland lakes). Multi-elemental analysis indicates that the sediments are enriched from regional basalts in Ba, Rb, Th, Cs and U (typical of silica-rich rocks) and depleted in Cr and Co due to mafic mineral weathering. The geochemical signals identified by principal component analysis enable us to group the sediments according to the studied islands and their geomorphological characteristics. This study underlines the importance of knowing the geochemical background levels in pristine lake sediments to evaluate potential future anthropogenic effects.

Clay mineralogy (including illite crystallinity) was studied in Pennsylvanian synorogenic sediments (Atoka Formation) in the subsurface of the Arkoma Basin and the adjacent Ouachita thrust belt. Vitrinite reflectance values range from ≥0.8% at the surface up to as high as 4.7% Ro at the base of the Atoka Formation. The mineralogy of the <2 µm fraction of the mudrocks is fairly monotonous and composed of illite (<10% interstratified smectite), Fe-chlorite, kaolinite, quartz, and traces of feldspars. Kaolinite is common at shallow levels and “disappears” in most wells at a thermal maturity of 1.9–2.1% Ro, suggesting its possible use as an independent paleothermal indicator in this basin. Illite crystallinity (IC) values are fairly high (0.3–0.5° 2θ) and show little variation throughout the entire maturity range. In addition, no relation was observed between vitrinite reflectance and illite crystallinity, indicating that IC is not a useful paleothermal indicator in these rocks. Illite is almost exclusively of the 2M1 polytype, suggesting a predominantly detrital origin. Incipient metamorphic and low-grade metamorphic mudrocks in the Ouachita thrust belt to the east of the Arkoma Basin are regarded as the source rocks for the clays of the Atoka Formation. Rapid transportation and deposition by turbidity currents probably played a key role in protecting these unweathered micas from pervasive alteration in the terrestrial environment.

K-Ar measurements were used in this study of upland Savannah River Site soils to distinguish between sorbed K and the K remaining in remnants of primary minerals. Study of sorbed K contributes to understanding further the interaction of alkali metals (Cs in particular) with the soils. Primary mineral K and the associated radiogenic Ar were studied to characterize soil mica with respect to its provenance and its relationship to hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite. K-Ar age values of Na-saturated clay fractions from five samples of these soils range in age from 270 to 370 Ma. After a moderate acid treatment (6% HNO3 v/v, ~1 mol dm-3, 3 h, 80°C) of the clay fractions, K-Ar age values (270-325 Ma) were little changed on the whole, but they were more closely grouped near 300 Ma. Earlier work had shown that most of the K in these soils is found in material resistant to moderate acid extraction. The K-Ar age values show that this acid-resistant material is much older than any pedogenic minerals could be, even much older than the sedimentary parent rocks from which the soils were derived. These observations support earlier inferences by others that the K in these well leached soils is largely in remnants of primary muscovite from the parent sediments. Age values near 300 Ma suggest that the muscovite is largely from proximal Piedmont terranes of the Appalachian orogen, where the K-Ar relationship in most micas was set by Alleghanian tectonic processes late in the Paleozoic Era. The structural location of the K within mica, shown by the retention of the associated radiogenic Ar, is in contrast to the sorption-dominated behavior of the Cs and most of the Rb in these soils during pedogenesis. Stronger acid treatment (~6 mol dm-3 HNO3, 3 h, 100°C) extracted substantial fractions of both the K and the radiogenic Ar from bulk-soil portions, indicating destruction of some of the primary mica. K-Ar age values for the sand-rich bulk soils were not useful for this study because the sand contains excess radiogenic Ar, probably in sand-sized vein quartz.

The Kamieniec Metamorphic Belt (KMB) and the Doboszowice Metamorphic Complex (DMC) expose a fragment of the pre-Variscan volcano-sedimentary cover preserved in the Fore-Sudetic Block in the NE part of the Bohemian Massif. We present the age of detrital and magmatic zircon grains and the bulk rock chemical composition of rock samples from the KMB and the DMC to better understand the evolution of the early Palaeozoic Gondwana margin. The zircon age spectra were acquired by U–Pb LA–ICP–MS dating and represent two groups that differ by maximum depositional age (MDA). The paragneiss from the DMC displays the MDA at 456 Ma, whereas the mica shist from the KMB displays the MDA at 529 Ma. Older age peaks in both groups of samples are represented by the Neoproterozoic and less frequent the Paleoproterozoic and Archean. The data presented indicate that the rock successions were sourced from the Cadomian orogen and deposited in the basins that developed on the Gondwana margin. Our results support the suggestion that the crystalline basement in the eastern part of the Fore-Sudetic Block has an affinity to the Trans-Saharan Belt or West African Craton and was part of a Gondwana shelf. The final stage of evolution of the studied successions was related to the Variscan thermal overprint. Based on presented data, we support the idea that the suture separating the Brunovistulian domain from the rest of the Gondwana-derived terranes is not related to the closure of the Rheic Ocean and represents a local feature.

The Upper Permian sedimentary successions in the northern Sydney Basin have been the subject of several stratigraphic, sedimentological and coal petrographic studies, and recently, extensive U-Pb zircon dating has been carried out on tuffs in the Newcastle Coal Measures. However, detailed petrographic and geochemical studies of these successions are lacking. These are important because a major change in tectonic setting occurred prior to the Late Permian because of the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny that caused the uplift of the Carboniferous and Devonian successions in the Tamworth Group and Tablelands Complex adjacent to the Sydney Basin. This should be reflected in the detrital makeup of the Upper Permian rocks. This study provides data that confirms major changes did take place at this time. Petrographic analysis indicates that the source area is composed of sedimentary, felsic volcanic and plutonic and low-grade metamorphic rocks. Conglomerate clast composition analysis confirms these results, revealing a source region that is composed of felsic volcanics, cherts, mudstones and sandstones. Geochemical analysis suggests that the sediments are geochemically mature and have undergone a moderate degree of weathering. The provenance data presented in this paper indicate that the southern New England Orogen is the principal source of detritus in the basin. Discrimination diagrams confirm that the source rocks derive from an arc-related, contractional setting and agree with the provenance analyses that indicate sediment deposition in a retroarc foreland basin. This study offers new insights on the provenance and tectonic setting of the Northern Sydney Basin, eastern Australia.

The glaciogenic nature of the Yudnamutana Subgroup was first recognized over a century ago, and its global significance was recognized shortly after, with the eventual postulation of a global Sturtian Glaciation and Snowball Earth theory. Much debate on the origin and timing of these rocks, locally and globally, has ensued in the years since. A significant corpus of research on the lithology, sedimentology, geochronology and formal lithostratigraphy of these sequences globally has attempted to resolve many of these debates. In the type area for the Sturtian Glaciation, South Australia’s Adelaide Superbasin, the lithostratigraphy and sedimentology are well understood; however, formal stratigraphic nomenclature has remained complicated and contested. Absolute dates on the stratigraphy are also extremely sparse in this area. The result of these longstanding issues has been disagreement as to whether the sedimentary rocks of the Yudnamutana Subgroup are truly correlative throughout South Australia, and if they were deposited in the same time span recently defined for Sturtian glacial rocks globally, c. 717 Ma to c. 660 Ma. This study presents a large detrital zircon study, summarizes and compiles existing global geochronology for the Sturtian Glaciation and revises the formal lithostratigraphic framework of the Yudnamutana Subgroup. We show equivalence of the rocks that comprise the revised Sturt Formation, the main glaciogenic unit of the Yudnamutana Subgroup, and that it was deposited within the time span globally defined for the Sturtian Glaciation.

In order to reappraise discourses on the restitution vs. retention of Africa’s cultural heritage, Eyssette examines the Musée du Quai Branly (France), the AfricaMuseum (Belgium), the British Museum (UK), and the Humboldt Forum (Germany) as one representative spectrum for analysis showing the mutual imbrications of their changing strategies and practices. After detecting biases in retentionist arguments on security, accessibility, law, and ethics, Eyssette stresses symmetrical shortcomings in restitutionist discourses on provenance research and the instrumentalization of heritage for economic gains or post-colonial rebranding. The conclusion determines whether these four institutions are retentionists, rhetorical restitutionists, or truly reformed restitutionists.

The Bell Beaker site near Brodek u Prostějova (Czechia) has yielded remains of a large timber construction accompanied by four symmetrical ritual deposits with numerous artefacts, including more than fifty ceramic vessels. Their decoration consists of incised patterns, in nineteen cases with preserved white inlaid incrustations. To investigate the social relations at this extraordinary site, a multi-analytical and micro-destructive approach was employed to determine the provenance and technology of the pottery and the composition of the white incrustations. The results indicate various origins for the pottery within the region and the presence of extra-regional fabrics and graphitic temper. The main raw materials for the white inlays were calcium carbonate (calcite), hydroxyapatite (bone), and bright clay. The mixing of decorative motifs and the variation in the shape and size of the beakers suggest unique manufacturing processes. These results lend support to the monumental site of Brodek serving as a ritual place for several communities from both local and wider areas.

During the early Bajocian, a conspicuous coal-bearing siliciclastic succession was deposited in the northern Tabas Bock, which is important for understanding the regional geodynamics of the Central-East Iranian Microcontinent (CEIM) as well as for the Jurassic coal genesis in this part of Laurasia. Sedimentary facies analysis in a well-exposed section of the lower Bajocian Hojedk Formation (Kalshaneh area, northern Tabas Block) led to the recognition of ten characteristic sedimentary facies and three facies associations, representing channels with point bars and floodplains of a Bajocian meandering river system. Modal analysis indicates that the mature quartz arenites and quartzo-lithic sandstones of the Hojedk Formation originated from the erosion and recycling of older, supracrustal sedimentary rocks on the Yazd Block to the west. The coal petrography and maturity show an advanced maturation stage, whereas the great thickness of these continental strata points to a pronounced extension-related subsidence in the northern Tabas Block. The rapid rate of differential subsidence can be explained by accelerated normal block-faulting in the back-arc extensional basin of the CEIM, facing the Neotethys to the south. Compared to the thick Jurassic, the post-Jurassic strata are relatively thin and played a limited role in the thermal history of the coal in the northern Tabas Block. A relatively high geothermal gradient in the tectonically highly mobile area of the northern Tabas Block and/or heating by regionally widespread Palaeogene intrusions were most probably the key drivers of the thermal maturation of the Middle Jurassic coals.

To ascertain weathering, provenance, and paleoclimate of the last ca. 29 ka in mainland Gujarat, western India, a sedimentary profile of ~7.5 m was measured, described, and sampled at Pratappura and a multiproxy analysis was conducted. To determine weathering, silty-sand and sandy-silt facies were analyzed, and log Na2O/K2O versus log SiO2/Al2O3 was plotted, which shows clustering in the quartz arenite and sub-litharenite categories, indicating low to moderate weathering. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) is 55–74, and was plotted versus the index of chemical variability (ICV) of 1.50, with samples clustered mainly between subalkali basalt and picrite, indicating the dominance of a mafic component. While depleted chondrite normalized light rare earth element (REE) (La/Yb <1) levels suggest the prevalence of a mafic source in the catchment, identical chondrite normalized REE patterns indicate that sediments were well homogenized. Using multiple proxies, the measured profile was subdivided into five paleoclimatic zones. Zone-I (29–18 ka) exhibits decreasing moisture, Corg, χlf, Al2O3, TiO2, and Fe2O3 trends, while higher values of CO3−2 and δ13C indicate a change from a warm-humid to semiarid climate. Zone-II (18–11 ka) shows signs of the beginning of aridity ca. 18 ka during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Several proxies in zone-III show wetter climatic conditions from the early Holocene (ca. 11–4 ka) due to the onset of the SW monsoon, with the trend continuing in zone-IV (4–2 ka). In zone-V, the climate appears to have been similar to the modern conditions in the area from 2 ka–present.

During late Carboniferous time, the residual ocean basin gradually closed in West Junggar and only a small amount of seawater remained in the Hala’alat Mountain area, where discussions of provenance and tectonics are limited. In this study, LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating and heavy mineral identification are conducted on the upper Carboniferous tuffaceous sandstones from the Hala’alat and Aladeyikesai formations in the Hala’alat Mountain area. The results reveal the low maturity of the clastic sediments, indicating proximal deposition. The Hala’alat Formation detrital zircons present a single peak (c. 330 Ma). Speculatively, the primary provenance is the Boshchekul–Chingiz Arc, and the secondary sources are the Darbut Tectono-Magmatic Belt and island arcs in the basin. The main peak and provenance of the Aladeyikesai Formation are similar to those of the Hala’alat Formation. Moreover, several age groups, namely, 370–344 Ma, 427–404 Ma and 478–476 Ma, potentially correspond to provenances of the Darbut Tectono-Magmatic Belt, the Boshchekul–Chingiz Arc and the Kujibai–Hongguleleng Ophiolitic Mélange Belt. In addition, the maximum depositional ages of the Hala’alat and Aladeyikesai formations calculated are 314.6 ± 1.54 Ma and 330.8 ± 0.61 Ma, respectively. Comprehensive analysis shows a relatively singular provenance of the Hala’alat Formation. While the provenance of the Aladeyikesai Formation shows inheritance, the provenance area extends northwards to the Kujibai–Hongguleleng Ophiolitic Mélange Belt. Furthermore, the closure of the Junggar Ocean during Carboniferous time caused the potential source region of the Hala’alat Mountain area to migrate northeastwards from Barleik Mountain to Xiemisitai Mountain. This study provides a basis for the analysis of regional geological evolution.

This article considers the relevance of the Society for American Archaeology's 2018 “Statement on Collaboration with Responsible and Responsive Stewards of the Past” for imported antiquities (specifically, “classical” ones—that is, from Mediterranean regions). Various practical, legal, and ethical differences between collecting imported versus domestic objects make it difficult to identify “responsive and responsible stewards” of the former. An obstacle to responsible stewardship of privately owned classical collections—and to collaboration between classical archaeologists and collectors—is the 2008 acquisition guidelines issued by the two leading professional organizations in the museum field. I argue that the best home for unprovenienced and poorly provenienced antiquities collections is in university museums, where their complicated object biographies can be fully researched, taught, and displayed.

Temporal constraints on the closure of the eastern segment of the Palaeo-Asian Ocean along the northern margin of the North China Craton (NCC) remain unclear. As a part of the NCC, the sedimentation and tectonic evolution of the Late Palaeozoic Ordos Basin were closely related to the opening and closing of the Palaeo-Asian Ocean. We use petrology, quantitative mineralogical analysis, U–Pb geochronology and trace element signatures of detrital zircons of the Lower Shihezi Formation from two sections in the eastern north Ordos Basin and two sections in the western north Ordos Basin to reconstruct the sedimentary provenance and tectonic background of the northern Ordos Basin. The results show that the sediments of the western sections were mainly derived from the Yinshan orogenic belt and Alxa block, and that those in the eastern sections only came from the Yinshan orogenic belt. The trace element ratios in detrital zircons from the Late Palaeozoic sandstones indicate that the source areas were mainly subduction-related continental arcs, closely related to the continued subduction of the Palaeo-Asian Ocean in the Late Palaeozoic. Since the main Late Palaeozoic magmatic periods vary on the east and west sides of the northern margin of the Ordos Basin, two main collisions related to Palaeo-Asian Ocean closure are recorded. The collision on the west side occurred significantly earlier than that in the east. This study implies that the Palaeo-Asian Ocean began to subduct beneath the NCC in the Carboniferous and gradually closed from west to east thereafter.