Public concern regarding the use of herbicides in urban areas (e.g., golf courses, parks, lawns) is increasing. Thus, there is a need for alternative methods for weed control that are safe for the public, effective against weeds, and yet selective to turfgrass and other desirable species. New molecular tools such as ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) have the potential to meet all those requirements, but before these technologies can be implemented, it is critical to understand the perceptions of key stakeholders to facilitate adoption as well as regulatory processes. With this in mind, turfgrass system managers, such as golf course superintendents and lawn care providers, were surveyed to gain insight into the perception and potential adoption of RNAi technology for weed management. Based on survey results, turfgrass managers believe that cost of weed management and time spent managing weeds are the main challenges faced in their fields. When considering new weed management tools, survey respondents were most concerned about cost, efficacy, and efficiency of a new product. Survey respondents were also optimistic toward RNAi for weed management and would either use this technology in their own fields or be willing to conduct research to develop RNAi herbicides. Although respondents believed that the general public would have some concerns about this technology, they did not believe this to be the most important factor for them when choosing new weed management tools. The need for new herbicides to balance weed control challenges and public demands is a central factor for turfgrass managers’ willingness to use RNAi-based weed control in turfgrass systems. They believe their clientele will be accepting of RNAi tools, although further research is needed to investigate how a wider range of stakeholders perceive RNAi tools for turfgrass management more broadly.

We use a dynamic model of the U.S. apple industry separated into organic and conventional production to better measure the impacts of pest or disease outbreaks on producers and consumers, along with an equilibrium displacement model to simulate welfare effects from various shocks compared to a baseline. Our results show that the impacts of the outbreaks differ between organic and conventional production methods. Growers’ and consumers’ responses to shocks differ widely across the industry. Farmers and policy makers should use these findings to appropriately respond to different shocks and production methods.

The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae, the most serious pest of olives, requires the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Erwinia dacicola in order to complete its development in unripe green olives. Hence a better understanding of the symbiosis of Ca. E. dacicola and its insect host may lead to new strategies for reduction of B. oleae and thus minimize its economic impact on olive production. Studies of this symbiosis are hampered as the bacterium cannot be grown in vitro and the established B. oleae laboratory populations, raised on artificial diets, are devoid of this bacterium. Here, we sought to develop a method to transfer the bacteria from wild samples to laboratory populations. We tested several strategies. Cohabitation of flies from the field with the laboratory line did not result in a stable transfer of bacteria. We provided the bacteria directly to the egg and also in the food of the larvae but neither approach was successful. However, a robust method for transfer of Ca. E. dacicola from wild larvae or adults to uninfected flies by transplantation to females was established. Single female lines were set up and the bacteria were successfully transmitted for at least three generations. These results open up the possibilities to study the interaction between the symbiont and the host under controlled conditions, in view of both understanding the molecular underpinnings of an exciting, unique in nature symbiotic relationship, as well as developing novel, innovative control approaches.

The tettigoniid Barbitistes vicetinus Galvagni & Fontana was described in 1993 as an endemic and rare bush-cricket of north-east Italy. Since 2008, this species has become a pest, causing repeated outbreaks with severe defoliations in broadleaf forests and neighbouring crops. Few data are currently available on ecology and life-cycle of this species, in particular about how temperature regulates egg-diapause and hatching phenology. The present work reports a field study regarding hatching phenology of B. vicetinus, surveyed with 84 emergence traps over four consecutive years (2013–2016). Moreover, the effect of temperature on the hatching was tested in the laboratory, exposing eggs to different temperatures. Field observations showed that hatching occurred between the end of March and beginning of April. In warmer years, hatching started early in the spring and lasted longer, while in colder years, hatching started later and was concentrated in a few days. Moreover, a significant effect of both elevation and exposure on the hatching start was observed. Results obtained from laboratory suggested the ability of the species to develop in the post-final diapause in a wide range of thermal conditions. After the diapause (terminated by a prolonged common exposure to low temperature) B. vicetinus was able to hatch from 6 to 23°C although, due to prolonged post-diapause development, hatching took place progressively later at colder temperatures. To manage B. vicetinus outbreaks, forecasting the seasonal phenology of egg hatching and its duration is important for an effective pest control.

In insects, two types of the immune responses, cellular and humoral, constitute a defensive barrier against various parasites and pathogens. In response to pathogens, insects produce a wide range of immune agents that act on pathogens directly, such as cecropins or lysozyme, or indirectly by the stimulation of hemocyte migration or by increasing phenoloxidase (PO) activity. Recently, many new immunologically active substances from insects, such as peptides and polypeptides, have been identified. Nevertheless, in the most cases, their physiological functions are not fully known. One such substance is yamamarin – a pentapeptide isolated from the silk moth Antheraea yamamai. This yamamarin possesses strong antiproliferative properties and is probably involved in diapause regulation. Here, we examined the immunotropic activity of yamamarin by testing its impact on selected functions of the immune system in heterologous bioassays with the beetle Tenebrio molitor, commonly known as a stored grains pest. Our results indicate that the pentapeptide affects the activity of immune processes in the beetle. We show that yamamarin induces changes in both humoral and cellular responses. The yamamarin increases the activity of PO, as well as causes changes in the hemocyte cytoskeleton and stimulates phagocytic activity. We detected an increased number of apoptotic hemocytes, however after the yamamarin injection, no significant variations in the antibacterial activity in the hemolymph were observed. The obtained data suggest that yamamarin could be an important controller of the immune system in T. molitor.

We investigated how the socio–political and ecological environment are associated with the conservation management strategies for two rare, endemic and almost identical Australian white-tailed black-cockatoos: Baudin's (Calyptorhynchus baudinii) and Carnaby's black-cockatoo (C. latirostris). Substantially less investment and action has occurred for Baudin's black-cockatoo. Interviews with key informants revealed that this disparity has probably arisen because Baudin's black-cockatoo has long been considered a pest to the apple industry, lives primarily in tall forests and has had little research undertaken on its biology and threats. By contrast, Carnaby's black-cockatoo has been the subject of one of the longest running research projects in Australia, is highly visible within the urban environment and does not appear to affect the livelihoods of any strong stakeholder group. We suggest the social context within which recovery efforts occur could be an important determinant in species persistence. We argue that social research is fundamental to a better understanding of the nature of efforts to conserve particular species, the factors associated with these efforts and their likelihood of success.

We assessed the impacts of crop raiding by wild mammals on the livelihoods of smallholding farmers in south-western Ethiopia. Data were generated through participatory field mapping, interviews and focus groups. The results indicated that wild mammals, mainly olive baboons Papio anubis and bush pigs Potamochoerus larvatus, were raiding most crops cultivated in villages close to forests. In addition to the loss of crops, farmers incurred indirect costs in having to guard and cultivate plots far from their residences, sometimes at the expense of their children's schooling. Raiding also undermined farmers’ willingness to invest in modern agricultural technologies. Various coping strategies, including guarding crops and adapting existing local institutions, were insufficient to reduce raiding and its indirect impacts on household economies to tolerable levels, and were undermined by existing policies and government institutions. It is essential to recognize wild mammal pests as a critical ecosystem disservice to farmers, and to identify ways to mitigate their direct and indirect costs, to facilitate local agricultural development and livelihood security, and integrate wildlife conservation and local development more fully in agriculture–forest mosaic landscapes.

Carabid beetles are important predators in agricultural landscapes feeding on a range of prey items. However, their role as predators of the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), one of the most serious pests of olives, is unknown. In this context, the feeding preferences and the functional responses of two carabid beetle species, Calathus granatensis (Vuillefroy) and Pterostichus globosus (Fabricius), were studied under laboratory conditions. Feeding preference assays involved exposing carabid beetles to different ratios of B. oleae pupae and an alternative prey, the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). Both species fed on B. oleae pupae however, C. granatensis always showed a significant preference for that prey whereas P. globosus switched to C. capitata pupae when the offered ratio was below 0.5. The total prey biomass consumed was significantly higher for P. globosus than for C. granatensis. Functional response curves were estimated based on different densities of B. oleae pupae and both carabid beetle species exhibited a type II functional response using Rogers’ random-predator equation. P. globosus showed shorter handling time (1.223 ± 0.118 h) on B. oleae pupae than C. granatensis (3.230 ± 0.627 h). Our results suggest that both species can be important in reducing the densities of B. oleae in olive groves, although P. globosus was more efficient than C. granatensis.

This is the first report of Bactra bactrana (Kennel, 1901) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) attacking a major solanaceous crop, sweet pepper Capsicum annuum L. The infestation was detected in two greenhouses at the area of Tympaki (Southern Crete, Greece). The moth larvae caused typical symptoms of a fruit borer with numerous small holes on the surface of the peppers and extensive damage on the inside of the fruit as a result of the feeding activity. Unknown factors facilitated this major shift in host range since B. bactrana is typically a stem borer of sedges. In addition, the pest status of B. bactrana is currently under question, as in both cases the infestations by the moth were associated with significant yield losses. B. bactrana was moderately controlled with chemicals registered for Lepidoptera management in sweet pepper due to the boring nature of the infestation. Some comparative taxonomic notes are provided to facilitate accurate pest discrimination of related Bactra species. Finally, biological attributes of the species are summarized and are discussed from pest control and ecological perspectives. Because Bactra species have been used in augmentative releases for the control of sage, the implications of our findings on the release of biocontrol agents are placed in perspective.

The soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) are a group of sap-sucking plant parasites, many of which are notorious agricultural pests. The quarantine and economic importance of soft scales necessitates rapid and reliable identification of these taxa. Nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene (barcoding region) and 28S rDNA were generated from 340 individuals of 36 common soft scales in China. Distance-based [(best match, Automated Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD)], tree-based (neighbor-joining, Bayesian inference), Klee diagrams, and general mixed Yule coalescent (GMYC) models were used to evaluate barcoding success rates in the data set. Best match showed that COI and 28S sequences could provide 100 and 95.52% correct identification, respectively. The average interspecific divergences were 19.81% for COI data and 20.38% for 28S data, and mean intraspecific divergences were 0.56 and 0.07%, respectively. For COI data, multiple methods (ABGD, Klee, and tree-based methods) resulted in general congruence with morphological identifications. However, GMYC analysis tended to provide more molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). Twelve MOTUs derived from five morphospecies (Rhodococcus sariuoni, Pulvinaria vitis, Pulvinaria aurantii, Parasaissetia nigra, and Ceroplastes rubens) were observed using the GMYC approach. In addition, tree-based methods showed that 28S sequences could be used for species-level identification (except for Ceroplastes ceriferus – Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus), even with low genetic variation (<1%). This report demonstrates the robustness of DNA barcoding for species discrimination of soft scales with two molecular markers (COI and 28S) and provides a reliable barcode library and rapid diagnostic tool for common soft scales in China.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the most important staple crops for small farmers in the tropics, feeding about 800 million people worldwide. It is currently cultivated in South and Central America, Africa and Asia. The genus Vatiga is widespread throughout the Neotropical region. Its species are sympatric and feed exclusively on cassava. The main objectives of this paper are: (1) to assess the potential distribution of Vatiga, one of the most relevant pests of cassava; (2) to project the resulting models onto the world; (3) to recognize areas with suitable and optimal climates (and thus, high probability) for future colonization, and (4) to compare this model with the harvested area of cassava analyzing the climatic variables required by both the host and the pest species. Species distribution models were built using Maxent (v3.3.3k) with bioclimatic variables from the WorldClim database in 2.5 arc min resolution across the globe. Our model shows that Vatiga has the potential to expand its current distribution into other suitable areas, and could invade other regions where cassava is already cultivated, e.g., Central Africa and Asia. Considering the results and the high host specificity of Vatiga, its recent appearance in Réunion Island (Africa) poses a serious threat, as nearby areas are potentially suitable for invasion and could serve as dispersal routes enabling Vatiga to reach the continent. The present work may help prevention or early detection of Vatiga spp. in areas where cassava is grown.

In this study, the basic biology of and artificial rearing techniques for Bactrocera pyrifoliae (Drew and Hancock), a pest of peaches and plums in high-elevation areas of northern Vietnam and Thailand, were investigated for 5 years. Bactrocera pyrifoliae was found only between elevations of 1000 and 1500 m, heavily infesting peaches and plums from early June to harvest in mid-July. The durations of the egg, larval and pupal stages were determined under controlled environmental conditions in the laboratory, indicating that B. pyrifoliae is a multivoltine species. Larvae were successfully reared on a carrot and corn powder-based diet. Determinations of the appropriate adult density in colony cages, and also optimal temperature conditions for holding adults, were made. Bactrocera pyrifoliae performed better when the temperature was lowered during the night, as would be expected for a species adapted to temperate-like environments. Interestingly, adults originating from field-collected pupae emerged with a 3:1 female-biased sex ratio. Laboratory colonies, by generation seven, appeared to exhibit signs of inbreeding depression and required periodic incorporation of wild insects to restore egg hatch. To develop sound management techniques for populations of B. pyrifoliae infesting peaches, alternate commercial and native hosts infested outside the peach and plum fruiting season must be identified or some form of overwintering mechanism such as reproductive diapause be discovered. Documentation of mating behaviour in the field (a key to developing efficient traps), improvement in fertility in laboratory colonies, and eventually sterile insect technique-based integrated pest management for pest population management in the expanding low-chill temperate fruit-growing areas of northern Vietnam are also needed.

In recent years, scientific methods of bio- and geoarchaeology have become increasingly important for archaeological research. Political changes since the 1990s have reshaped the archaeological community. At the same time environmental topics have gained importance in modern society, but the debate lacks an historical understanding. Regarding medieval rural archaeology, we need to ask how this influences our archaeological research on medieval settlements, and how ecological approaches fit into the self-concept of medieval archaeology as a primarily historical discipline. Based mainly on a background in German medieval archaeology, this article calls attention to more complex ecological research questions. Medieval village formation and the late medieval crisis are taken as examples to sketch some hypotheses and research questions. The perspective of a village ecosystem helps bring together economic aspects, human ecology and environmental history. There are several implications for archaeological theory as well as for archaeological practice. Traditional approaches from landscape archaeology are insufficient to understand the changes within village ecosystems. We need to consider social aspects and subjective recognition of the environment by past humans as a crucial part of human–nature interaction. Use of the perspective of village ecosystems as a theoretical background offers a way to examine individual historical case studies with close attention to human agency. Thinking in terms of human ecology and environmental history raises awareness of some interrelations that are crucial to understanding past societies and cultural change.

Wheat bulb fly (WBF) larvae use chemotaxis to orientate towards host-plant root exudates. This study aimed to investigate the role of the primary plant metabolite carbon dioxide (CO2) in host-plant location by WBF. Arena based behavioural experiments were used to identify whether CO2 induced chemotaxis (directional movement in response to a chemical stimulus) or kinesis (non-directional movement in response to a stimulus) from WBF larvae. No chemotactic response was observed when larvae were presented to a point source of CO2. However, elevated levels of CO2 induced kinesis, with both track length and tortuosity (number of twists and turns in the movement path) increasing at elevated CO2 levels of 1000–2000 ppm, demonstrating increased searching behaviour. Soil emission of CO2 was quantified to compare soil levels with those identified as eliciting behavioural effects on the larvae. Samples removed from soil gave a mean CO2 concentration of 557 (±46) ppm, which is lower than the lowest concentration of CO2 found to induce a behavioural response and higher than the lowest CO2 concentration tested, which was found not to alter behaviour. It is proposed that increased CO2 concentrations in the soil act as a behavioural trigger, inducing intensive searching of an area by WBF larvae. This increases the likelihood of finding more host-specific identifiers, such as secondary metabolites when near a potential host-plant.

Wheat bulb fly (WBF, Delia coarctata, Fallén, Diptera: Anthomyiidae) is a pest of commercial importance in wheat, barley and rye, with attacked crops failing to produce full potential yields. Females do not oviposit in association with a host-plant; therefore, prompt location of a suitable host is critical to the survival of the newly hatched larvae. The objective of this study was to conduct choice test bioassays to assess the attraction of WBF larvae to specific chemical constituents of WBF host-plant root exudates, the hydroxamic acids DIMBOA (2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one) and MBOA (6-methoxy-benzoxazolin-2-one). The larval response to four concentrations of each test compound was assessed in arena bioassays. Analysis using a Rayleigh test of uniformity of the final resting positions of larvae in response to these chemicals indicated attraction. These results go some way to explaining the mechanisms by which WBF larvae locate host plants, giving the potential to develop semiochemical based control strategies.

Parental environments could play an important role in controlling insect outbreaks, provided they influence changes in physiological, developmental or behavioural life-history traits related to fluctuations in population density. However, the potential implication of parental influence in density-related changes in life-history traits remains unclear in many insects that exhibit fluctuating population dynamics, particularly locusts. In this study, we report a laboratory experiment, which enabled us to characterize the life-history trait modifications induced by parental crowding of female individuals from a frequently outbreaking population of Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus) (Orthoptera: Acrididae). We found that a rearing history of crowding led to reduced female oviposition times and increased offspring size but did not affect the developmental time, survival, fecundity, and the sex-ratio and the number of offspring. Because all studied females were raised in a common environment (isolation conditions), these observed reproductive differences are due to trans-generational effects induced by density. We discuss the ecological and evolutionary implications of the observed density-dependent parental effects on the life-history of L. migratoria.

Landscape genetics have been particularly relevant when assessing the influence of landscape characteristics on the genetic variability and the identification of barriers to gene flow. Linking current practices of area-wide pest management information on pest population genetics and geographical barriers would increase the efficiency of these programs. The woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann), an important pest of apple orchards worldwide, was collected on apple trees (Malus domestica Borkh) from different locations in a 400 km north-south transect trough central Chile. In order to determine if there was population structure, diversity and flow were assessed. A total of 215 individuals from these locations were analysed using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. Four ISSR primers generated a total of 114 polymorphic loci. The percentage of molecular variation among locations was 18%. As the algorithm used by structure may be poorly suited for inferring the number of genetic clusters in a data set that has an IBD relationship, the number of genetic clusters in the samples was also analyzed using a Bayesian clustering method implemented in software Baps version 4.14. We inferred the presence of four genetic clusters in the study region. Clustering of individuals followed a pattern explained by some geographical barriers. Using partial Mantel tests, we detected barriers to gene flow other than distance, created by a combination of main rivers and mountains. Although landscape genetics are rarely used in pest management, our results suggest that these tools may be suitable for the design of area-wide pest management programs.

Ornamental crabs of the genus Mithraculus (Decapoda: Brachyura: Majidae) are utilized in reef aquaria to control nuisance algae, particularly bubble algae. Although Mithraculus have modified, spooned-shaped chelae to feed on both fleshy and filamentous algae, they may consume alternative foods offered in a reef aquarium. The objective of this study was to determine the efficiency of using Mithraculus sculptus to control the bubble alga Ventricaria ventricosa (Siphonocladales–Cladophorales complex, Chlorophyta) in the presence of alternative foods (commercial pellets and frozen mysids) commonly utilized in reef aquaria. Results indicated that medium and large sized crabs consumed more bubble algae than smaller conspecifics. Although, M. sculptus first chose alternative foods to bubble alga (77% and 69% of the time chose pellets and frozen mysids, respectively), algal consumption only decreased significantly if, besides algae, pellets were provided; when only algae were provided, algal consumption was similar to when they were provided with mysids. The prey choice model was used as a conceptual framework to study the mechanisms underlying active selection; food energy content and handling time were measured and food profitability was calculated. Handling time decreased with increasing crab size. Pellets presented a higher profitability than algae but mysids and algae presented similar profitability; this seems to be in agreement with the observed reduced algal consumption when pellets made part of the diet. Mithraculus sculptus feeding behaviour on V. ventricosa recorded with digital high-speed video (DHSV) suggests that as the crab tears the algal cell apart, the cell liquid that contains juvenile cytoplasmatic spheres is released into the water; this behaviour might contribute to algal dispersal and consequently algal infestation. These results seem to indicate that M. sculptus might not be such an efficient bio-controller of the pest V. ventricosa as previously thought, particularly when pellets are used as food; however, its bio-control efficiency might be improved if, mysids are used as food.