High calf mortality rate is a significant problem facing semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) production around the world. Mortality rates, commonly due to predation, can range from 5 to 70%, which constitutes a great welfare concern. This study examined the influence of quantifiable maternal characteristics on reindeer calf survival. Data were compiled from 18 years’ worth of records on the survival of calves in the Cairngorm reindeer herd (Scottish Highlands, UK). Overall, mortality rate of calves (n = 635) in the herd was 34.9% to six months old, rising to 47.8% by one year old. For both Total Calf Survival (including perinatal losses) and Postnatal Calf Survival (excluding perinatal losses) of calves up to six months old, the only maternal trait found to significantly influence calf survival was the age of the cow at calving. Calves of very young and old cows showed higher mortality rates. Only 40% of the cows were associated with 77% of calf deaths and it was demonstrated that there were significant individual differences between cows in relation to their ability to consistently rear calves successfully. These findings can be applied to reduce calf mortality within herds, guiding selection towards females with successful reproductive histories and with ages falling in the prime productive range (3-11 years old). Additionally, annual variation had a highly significant influence on calf survival with rising mortality over the recorded period, indicating a role of environment on survival and an avenue for further research to investigate the impact of external factors, such as climate and pathogen load on post-natal loss.

Children exposed to prenatal maternal psychological distress are at elevated risk for a range of adverse outcomes; however, it remains poorly understood whether postnatal influences can ameliorate impairments related to prenatal distress. The current study evaluated if sensitivematernal care during the first postnatal year could mitigate child cognitive and emotional impairments associated with prenatal psychological distress. Prenatal maternal psychological distress was assessed via self-reports of anxiety, depression, and perceived stress for 136 mothers at five prenatal and four postpartum time points. Quality of maternal care (sensitivity to nondistress, positive regard, and intrusiveness reverse-scored) were assessed during a mother–child play interaction at 6 and 12 months. Child cognitive function and negative emotionality were assessed at 2 years, using The Bayley Scales and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. Elevated prenatal distress was associated with poorer child cognitive function and elevated negative emotionality. Children exposed to elevated prenatal maternal distress did not, however, display these outcomes if they received high-quality caregiving. Specifically, maternal care moderated the relation between prenatal psychological distress and child cognitive function and negative emotionality. This association remained after consideration of postnatal maternal psychological distress and relevant covariates. Sensitive maternal care was associated with altered offspring developmental trajectories, supporting child resilience following prenatal distress exposure.

Research is needed on how technology can facilitate cow−calf contact (CCC). This research communication describes the behaviour of dairy cow−calf pairs in two cow-driven CCC-systems differing in cows' access to the calves through computer-controlled access gates (smart gates, SG). Specifically, cow traffic through SG when visiting their calves, allogrooming, suckling and cross-suckling, cows' eating and resting behaviour and finally vocal response to separation were assessed. After 3 d in an individual calving pen, pairs (n = 8) were moved to the CCC compartment with a cow area, a calf creep and a meeting area. During the next 31 d calves could suckle the cows whenever they visited the meeting area (suckling phase). Cows had free (group 1, n = 4 pairs) or restricted access to the calves based on previous activity in the automatic milking system (group 2, n = 4 pairs). SG's controlled cow traffic between the meeting area and the cow area, in which the cows could access resources such as feed, cubicles, and the automatic milking system. Following the suckling phase cow access into the meeting area was gradually decreased over 9 d (separation phase). During the suckling phase, cows paid frequent and short visits to their calves. Pairs spent in total approximately one h/d suckling and allogrooming. However, the duration and frequencies of these events varied among pairs and groups, as did the vocal response to separation. Restricted access − cows performed more (unrewarded) attempts to visit the calves who cross-suckled more. Collectively, free access to the calves may have been more intuitive and welfare friendly. Although a low sample size limits interpretation beyond description and enabling hypothesis formulation for future research, the results indicate that the cow is motivated to visit her calf, albeit through a SG, thus facilitating particular behaviours for which cow-calf pairs are highly motivated.

Since the implementation of the National Health Mission (NHM) in India there has been a noticeable improvement in the utilization of maternal care, namely antenatal care (ANC), skilled birth attendants (SBA) and postnatal care (PNC) in the country. The increase in utilization of these services is expected to reduce inequality across geographies and population sub-groups, but little is known about the extent of inequality in maternal care use across socioeconomic groups over time. Using data from the last two rounds of National Family Health Surveys conducted in 2005–06 and 2015–16, this study examined the extent of inequality in utilization of full ANC, SBA and PNC in India and its states. Descriptive statistics were used, a concentration index was computed and decomposition analyses performed to understand the pattern and change of inequality in use of maternal care. The results suggest that the gap in maternal care utilization across socioeconomic groups has reduced over time. The concentration index for SBA showed a decline from 0.49 in 2005–06 to 0.08 by 2015–16, while that of PNC declined from 0.36 to 0.13 over the same period. The reduction in inequality in utilization of full PNC was the least. The results of the decomposition analysis revealed that urban residence, education and belonging to Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes positively contributed to the inequality. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the Janani Suraksha Yojana and Janani Sishu Suraksha Karyakaram schemes be continued and strengthened for poor mothers to reduce maternal health inequality, particularly in full ANC and PNC.

Reproductive characteristics of poorly studied hyperiid amphipods, especially Phronimella elongata, are described. Among nine species of hand-collected phronimids, females of Phronimella elongata, Phronima dunbari and Phronima sedentaria cohabited with their young in a ‘barrel' derived from gelatinous zooplankton. Five growth stages of young were identified in Phronimella elongata: young of stages I–IV were found with the mother in the barrel, but stage-V young clinged to the mother retaining no barrel. The cohabiting young in Phronimella elongata and Phronima sedentaria always consisted of single growth stage. In a single female of Phronima dunbari, however, two different stages of young coexisted in a barrel. In Phronimella elongata, the mother size significantly correlated with the number of brooded eggs or cohabiting young regardless of growth stages of young. Considerable variation in the number of eggs or young per female among phronimid species may attribute to the differences in the volumes of the brood pouches.

The aim of this study is to characterize profiles of maternal care in a sample of Brazilian mothers, using a culturalbiological perspective. Participants were 315 women who had at least one child younger than six years-old. They were selected from six Brazilian states. In each state, two groups of mothers were studied, one from the capital and one from a small city. They were interviewed and answered scales on allocentrism, social support, adult attachment, and practices of childcare. Mothers' characteristics, the type of context (capital vs. small city), and reported childcare practices were used in a Tree analysis. A Correspondence analysis was performed using the four clusters obtained and mothers' answers regarding their youngest child. Univariate GLM analyses were performed to compare mothers in the four clusters in terms of their scores on the different scales. Four maternal profiles presenting distinctive patterns of association between mothers' characteristics and care practices displayed to the youngest child were identified. We conclude that maternal care is a multi-determined phenomenon and that the method employed in this study can give insights into how the combination of diverse social-biological factors can result in a set of childcare practices.

Many models have been advanced to suggest how different expressions of sociality have evolved and are maintained. However these models ignore the function of groups for the particular species in question. Here we present a new perspective on sociality where the function of the group takes a central role. We argue that sociality may have primarily a reproductive, protective, or foraging function, depending on whether it enhances the reproductive, protective or foraging aspect of the animal's life (sociality may serve a mixture of these functions). Different functions can potentially cause the development of the same social behaviour. By identifying which function influences a particular social behaviour we can determine how that social behaviour will change with changing conditions, and which models are most pertinent. To test our approach we examined spider sociality, which has often been seen as the poor cousin to insect sociality. By using our approach we found that the group characteristics of eusocial insects is largely governed by the reproductive function of their groups, while the group characteristics of social spiders is largely governed by the foraging function of the group. This means that models relevant to insects may not be relevant to spiders. It also explains why eusocial insects have developed a strict caste system while spider societies are more egalitarian. We also used our approach to explain the differences between different types of spider groups. For example, differences in the characteristics of colonial and kleptoparasitic groups can be explained by differences in foraging methods, while differences between colonial and cooperative spiders can be explained by the role of the reproductive function in the formation of cooperative spider groups. Although the interactions within cooperative spider colonies are largely those of a foraging society, demographic traits and colony dynamics are strongly influenced by the reproductive function. We argue that functional explanations help to understand the social structure of spider groups and therefore the evolutionary potential for speciation in social spiders.

Parental care, especially as it relates to our understanding of sociality, is a topic that has received considerable recent attention in research on spiders (Aviles, 1997). Predatory strategies, including foraging decisions, prey preferences and predatory versatility, have also been emphasized in the recent literature. The present paper is concerned with both of these areas, parental care and predatory strategies. Scytodes sp. indet. is a versatile predator that captures prey either in its web or away from webs, and prey capture may be either by ambush or by active pursuit regardless of whether in the presence and absence of webs. The web is a sparsely woven sheet across a concave upper leaf surface, with a three-dimensional tubular nest linked to the sheet via a small opening. Leaves may be green and living or brown and dead. In the field, a wide range of insects and spiders is taken, but jumping spiders (Salticidae) are the dominant prey. Predatory attacks are by spitting, with large prey being spat at repeatedly before being subdued. After spitting, the scytodid wraps prey in silk before feeding. Eggs are enclosed in a silk egg sac. The female uses her chelicerae to hold her eggs until hatching. After hatching, there is an extended mother–offspring association, with juveniles tending to remain in their mother's web until after the third moult. Females take prey to their juveniles and either feed alongside the juveniles or leave the juveniles to feed alone.

Argyrodes flavipes illustrates a novel form of highly social behaviour in spiders. Although A. flavipes lives in groups, forages communally, and has parental care, it is also highly aggressive towards conspecifics. These observations, plus the relatively small group sizes, suggest that sociality in these animals may be more akin to that in social mammalian carnivores than in social insects. Most highly social spiders are thought to have developed sociality via the sub-social route because of their high level of parental care. Although A. flavipes also exhibits high levels of parental care, its phylogenetic background and the fact that it needs to defend its young from conspecifics, suggest that both sub-social and para-social factors may have influenced its social development.