Increasing net-zero commitments by individuals, companies and governments have been accompanied by the growth of the voluntary offset market, including Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+). Technologies, notably blockchain, are starting to enter the REDD+ space and may have the potential to address issues such as additionality, permanence, leakage and property and community rights. In this Perspective, we first examine voluntary markets and the role forest carbon offsets have played within them, highlighting the evolution of REDD+ and the issues that have hindered its development. We then examine the potential of blockchain to address each of the issues, using the literature and emerging experience from the use of blockchain in the forestry space. We find that the technology may have the potential to improve verifiability, reduce transaction costs and, to a lesser degree, aid in addressing additionality and permanence concerns. However, greater learning from the emerging use of blockchain in pilot projects is needed to fully assess and maximize its potential.

In nature conservation, the generation of public interest, attention or emotions is an important instrument for nature, biotope and species protection; in this, charismatic flagship species play an important role. In the present study, flagship-making affiliation to a taxonomic unit as well as morphological, ecological and conservation traits were identified by analysing vertebrate species from each of the five extant vertebrate classes (Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia and fishes). Google Trends data on the 20 most Googled species of each of the five classes were used, a representation index was derived and the body mass, diet and protection status of these species were analysed. A clear concentration of interest in mammalian species was evident with the help of the introduced representation index. Furthermore, species with a higher body mass were clearly overrepresented in the data. Overall, important patterns in the studied traits were determined: belonging to Mammalia, a large body mass and a carnivorous diet are frequently represented among these species. For conservation purposes, such popular species can be specifically selected as flagship species or ambassadors to help protect entire biomes, which will therefore benefit less charismatic species as well. Possible ways to use traits that are perceived to be flagship-making in order to further the global conservation endeavour are briefly discussed.

Protected areas have numerous roles (such as biodiversity preservation, the development of scientific research and the sustainable use of natural resources), but they are under threat from political and economic forces. The 837 000-ha Serra do Divisor National Park (SDNP) in the south-western Brazilian Amazon combines the conservation of natural resources and the maintenance of the productive activities of c. 400 resident families. The Brazilian and Peruvian governments have proposed a road linking Acre (Brazil) to Ucayali (Peru) that would bisect the SDNP. Another threat to the SDNP is a bill proposing its downgrading to an ‘environmental protection area’. This study aims to map the land cover of the SDNP and its surroundings from 1988 to 2018 and to analyse the dynamics of land-use change. Analysis of Landsat satellite images with supervised classification using the MaxVer algorithm show that, during the 30-year period, pasture showed the highest absolute land-cover gain, with 1986 ha in the interior and 7661 ha along the periphery of the SDNP. Only 1% of the park’s primary forest was lost by 2018, but the proposed road and potential downgrading may result in accelerated deforestation and forest degradation in the near future.

There are huge differences in the conservation support and attention received by different species, perhaps because of human preferences for specific aesthetic traits, such as body size and colouring. If there are such inherent human preferences, then new flagship species should be aesthetically similar to existing successful flagship species and conservation campaigns should not feature less attractive species. However, cultural preconceptions about species and the covariance of traits make it difficult to determine the role of aesthetic traits. Both of these problems can be overcome with imaginary animals. If preferences for certain species traits are inherent in the human psyche, then the same preferences should be found in both real and imaginary animals. Using an online survey with US participants, we find that aesthetic traits are associated with preferences for real but not imaginary animals. For both real and imaginary animals, small and declining populations are preferred. We therefore suggest that organizations should not reject potential flagship species based on appearance. Consistent preferences for poor conservation status and the ability to use our results to predict donations to real animal species suggest that conservation support for specific species could be encouraged if organizations communicate information regarding population sizes and trends.

Forest restoration is receiving increased attention from many public and private actors, but few large-scale experiences exist. We explored 10 cases where forest cover had either increased or stabilized or where there was a significant drive towards forest expansion to understand which factors can facilitate the scaling up of forest restoration. We developed a data collection checklist to search the literature and we interviewed key informants. Our analysis identified 15 motivating factors for forest restoration, including the desire to mitigate land degradation, droughts or floods or to contribute to biodiversity conservation. We also identified some factors that facilitate the implementation of forest restoration, such as a supportive policy framework that includes forest restoration plans, financial incentives, truly collaborative arrangements, tenure rights to forests, trees and specific goods and services from these, the roles of specialized agencies, external stakeholders, local communities and local authorities. For restoration to be sustained, it is necessary to integrate it into national institutions, ensure sectoral integration across landscapes, ensure diversified and long-term financing and embed it in local institutions.

The distribution of regeneration makes it possible to assess whether populations of tree species will maintain or change their distributions. For Neotropical dry forests there is little information on the potential changes in the distribution of tree species. Here, we evaluate the potential distributions of adults and seedlings of eight timber tree species of the Piedmont Forest of north-western Argentina by recording the presence of seedlings and adults in plots and modelling with MaxEnt software using three bioclimatic variables. The potential distribution areas of seedlings and adults and the percentage of overlap of seedlings with respect to adults were calculated. The potential distribution for adults was 694 457 ± 62 535 ha, and this figure was 656 564 ± 194 769 ha for seedlings. The potential distribution of seedlings of Calycophyllum multiflorum covered the smallest area (184 496 ha) and had the least overlap with the adults (18%). The difference in the overlap of the potential distribution areas between adults and seedlings suggests that there could be changes in the future distribution of this tree species and C. multiflorum should therefore be the focus of conservation strategies so that the species can follow its bioclimatic niche as the climate changes.

Recreational activities may have negative effects on wildlife, but there are very few studies specifically on the effects of free-flight activities (i.e., hang-gliders, paragliders and their powered derivatives) on wildlife. We review the existing scientific studies on this issue in order to identify the gaps in knowledge at the taxonomic-group level in order to develop guidelines to minimize the impacts of recreational free-flight on wildlife. We found that studies mainly concerned the effects on four ungulate species (chamois, red deer, roe deer and Alpine ibex) and, to a lesser extent, on raptors such as the golden eagle and two vulture species (bearded vulture and cinereous vulture). The studies have generally been carried out in high mountain areas (e.g., the European Alps). Data show that free-flight activities create disturbances and have negative effects on wildlife, resulting in increased energy expenditure, reduction of feeding time, abandonment of feeding areas, reduced breeding output, loss of body condition, increased predation risk and harm from flight accidents. However, the lack of studies on many species and areas, along with the small number of long-term studies, prevents proper assessment of the current situation regarding the impact of this activity on wildlife. We provide recommendations to improve the regulation of this activity.

Land-use changes have negative effects on stream conditions and fish assemblages, but their effects on water quality and the use of microhabitats by fish in subtropical lowland streams are unclear. We evaluated the effects of urban patches (two urban streams) in an agricultural matrix (two ‘agricultural’ streams) on water quality, microhabitat diversity and fish assemblages, as well as the selection of microhabitat types by fish in the Arroyo Colorado basin (Uruguay). Physicochemical water parameters were measured, the fish sampled using electrofishing, microhabitat diversity, occupancy of microhabitats by fish and the most important microhabitat types for fish species were analysed. Agricultural streams presented higher water quality and microhabitat diversity, and most of the microhabitats were occupied by fish. Microhabitats with medium substrate sizes and running water prevailed in urban streams, while the presence of macrophytes, shallow waters and different substrate sizes were common in agricultural streams. The most important microhabitats used by fish species were not the most abundant, highlighting the fragility of streams resulting from the loss of appropriate conditions. Understanding how different degrees of deterioration in streams affect water quality and microhabitat–fish interactions is essential for the designing of effective monitoring and restoration programmes.

Subsistence hunting provides an important food source for rural populations in tropical forests but can lead to wildlife depletion. Management of wildlife resources depends on assessments of hunting sustainability. We assessed the sustainability of subsistence hunting in two Amazonian Extractive Reserves. We examined hunting data from a community-based monitoring programme conducted in 30 communities during 63 consecutive months to address temporal trends in hunting yields in terms of catch per unit of effort of all game species and the six most hunted species. We also assessed the prey profiles across different communities. Game species composition did not differ between monitored communities, and the most hunted species were Tayassu pecari, large cracids, Cuniculus paca, Mazama spp., Tapirus terrestris and Pecari tajacu. Catch per unit of effort was stable for all game species and each of the most hunted species, indicating that hunting was generally sustainable. These findings reflect the exceptionally low human population density and continuous forest cover of the study landscape, and long-term hunting sustainability and local protein acquisition will depend on maintaining these social and environmental settings. The results also show that large Sustainable Use Protected Areas can help foster sustainable game management and should thus be included in public policies.

Protected areas (PAs) represent a powerful refuge for maintaining and safeguarding biodiversity. Generally, PAs are delineated to protect terrestrial taxa, providing incidental protection to the aquatic ecosystems within their borders. Here, we compare water quality within PAs and non-PAs in southern Brazil, encompassing remnants of the Atlantic Forest biome, to assess whether PAs serve as a buffer from external pressures for aquatic ecosystems within their boundaries. In addition to physicochemical and microbiological water parameters, we analysed 147 pesticide and 31 pharmaceutical compounds in water samples from 33 sites within and outside PAs. The water quality did not differ between PAs and non-PAs but indicated clear pollution from sewage discharges. We found 19 pesticides and five pharmaceuticals in streams within the study area. We detected pesticides in all sampling sites, with the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid present in 91% of them. Our data show that PAs are insufficient means to mitigate the impacts stemming from their catchments, and the running water that reaches their domains already shows signs of anthropogenic interference, which may affect aquatic biodiversity. Protection and management measures require consideration of the whole watershed to protect freshwater habitats and biota.

Although protected areas (PAs) play an important role in ecosystem conservation and climate change adaptation, no systematic information is available on PA protection of high-elevation freshwater ecosystems (e.g., lakes and watersheds with glaciers), their biodiversity and their ecosystem services in the tropical Andes. We therefore combined a literature review and map analysis of PAs of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and national systems of PAs and freshwater ecosystems. We found that seven national parks were created for water resources protection but were not designed for freshwater conservation (i.e., larger watersheds). High-value biodiversity sites have not been protected, and new local PAs were created due to water resource needs. We quantified 31 Ramsar sites and observed that PAs cover 12% of lakes, 31% of glacial lakes and 12% of the total stream length in the tropical Andes. Additionally, 120 watersheds (average area 631 km2) with glaciers and 40% of the total glacier surface area were covered by PAs. Future research into the role of PAs in ecosystem services provision and more detailed freshwater inventories within and around PAs, especially for those dependent on glacier runoff, will fill key knowledge gaps for freshwater conservation and climate change adaptation in the tropical Andes.

Many biomes still lack an overall view of their macro-functional structure (i.e., natural biogeographical regions and zones), including the Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot. The effective design of protected areas depends on the spatial identification of units with ecologically distinct content, whether it be floristic, phylogenetic or functional. This study used a regionalization approach to identify the potential functional regions of the Atlantic Forest by interpolating functional data from forest remnants into the entire original occurrence area of the biome, including deforested lands. Conservation status was then estimated. Analysis of seven traits of leaf, wood, seed and plant size revealed that the biome is structured over 14 functional regions and three zones (clusters of regions). Functional regions represented specific combinations of traits rather than being characterized by extremely high or low values of a single trait. They retained an average of 29.5% of forest remnants (range: 7.63–54.66%) and 10.82% of protected areas (range: 0.35–35.78%). By analysing the functional space occupied by all regions, captured by two principal component analysis axes using the pixel-level information contained in interpolated trait maps, we showed that large parts of this space were not covered by forest remnants or protected areas and that the most represented regions had serious deficits in protected areas. Although the Serra do Mar mountain range in the south and south-east Atlantic Forest is relevant as a centre of species endemism and richness and has received considerable attention for carrying out ecological studies and creating protection areas, this range does not fully encompass the functional biodiversity of such a rich biome. Our results demonstrate the potential for combining regionalization and conservation approaches to unravel the macro-structures of biomes.

Conservation organizations often need to develop risk-diversification strategies that identify not just what species to protect but also where to protect them. The objective of this research is to identify optimal conservation investment allocations for both target sites and species under conditions of uncertainty. We develop a two-step approach using modern portfolio theory (MPT) to estimate percentages of conservation investment (referred to as ‘portfolio weights’) for counties and taxonomic groups in the central and southern Appalachian region under climate and market uncertainties. The portfolio weights across the counties and taxonomic groups from the two steps entail both spatial and taxonomic diversification strategies. Conservation decisions that allow for selecting sites for risk diversification fit the purpose of the first step. Likewise, conservation investments that benefit the biodiversity of particular taxonomic groups for the selected sites are made based on the relative importance of diversifying risk among species in a given area, fitting the purpose of the second step. The two-step MPT approach as a whole allows the greatest flexibility on where and what to protect for conservation investment under uncertainty, and thus would be applicable for the distribution of general conservation funds without predisposition towards protecting either specific sites or species.

The adoption of adaptive management plans has been advocated in order to ensure the most effective management of natural habitats. Here, it is demonstrated how a hierarchical structural equation model that is fitted to temporal ecological monitoring data from a number of sites may be used to generate quantitative local ecological predictions and how these predictions may form the basis of adaptive management plans. Local ecological predictions will be made for the cover of the dwarf shrub cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix) on Danish wet heathlands, which is an indicator of the conservation status of wet heathlands under different management scenarios. Based on a realistic example, the model predictions conclude that grazing by livestock on wet heathlands with a relatively low cover of cross-leaved heath cannot be recommended as the only management practice. Generally, ecological monitoring data may be used to generate quantitative and credible local adaptive management plans where uncertainty is taken into account.

For many, declining biodiversity represents an emotionally and psychologically distant ‘cost’ – similar to how a number of people perceive climate change. Using an expectancy-value theory framework, we showed participants photographs that visibly illustrated the threat of biodiversity loss. Specifically, we tested a combination of preregistered and exploratory hypotheses through an online experiment (n = 843) to understand whether viewing photographs of plants and animals (with and without captions) bolstered people’s valuing of biodiversity and willingness to donate to a nature-focused charity relative to a control group. Participants who viewed photographs (without captions) valued biodiversity more and donated more to the nature-focused charity; those who viewed photographs with captions showed similar though more muted (non-statistically significant) effects. Follow-up mediation analyses on the photographs-only participants suggested that the photographs may have catalysed negative emotions that increased valuing of biodiversity and, in turn, increased donations. This study provides preregistered evidence that thoughtfully selected photographs boost people’s valuing of biodiversity and exploratory evidence that the pathway through which that might occur is more likely via negative emotions than through reduced psychological distance. Educators, conservationists, journalists and others may find these results informative as they develop strategies for addressing the acute problem of biodiversity loss.

The Brazilian Legal Amazon contains important reservoirs of forest that are threatened by stakeholders’ behaviour. The Cadastro Ambiental Rural (CAR; Rural Environmental Registry) database was used to define the limits and classes of landowner according to private property size. For each class, we identified the annual forest-cover/cover-loss profile at 2-year intervals from 2000 to 2020 based on Brazilian Annual Land Use and Land Cover Mapping Project (MapBiomas) and Program for Deforestation Monitoring (PRODES) data. The analysis revealed that very large landowners dominate the CAR-registered area and that deforestation is influenced by landowner type. The cumulative contributions to deforestation were 2 916 245.96, 1 234 216.79, 2 871 400.36, 2 805 058.62 and 2 637 485.60 ha for very large landowners, large landowners, medium landowners, small landowners and very small landowners, respectively. Very large landowners (1.7% of the total number of properties) had more forest on their properties but caused the greatest amount of deforestation in total, often associated with agribusiness. Small and very small landowners were more numerous (21.0% and 68.3% of the total number of properties, respectively), but they owned a small total area and contributed less to total deforestation. Property size and landownership asymmetry should be considered in deforestation control policies and commitments to the Sustainable Development Goals agenda.