Positive experiences have an important protective and promotive role in reducing the possible effects of negative childhood experiences and other negative environmental conditions in individuals’ lives (Arslan et al., Reference Arslan, Allen and Tanhan2020; Masoom Ali et al., Reference Masoom Ali, Yildirim, Abdul Hussain and Vostanis2020). Positive childhood experiences include, for example, being in a positive interactive environment with parents, growing up in a safe environment, having opportunities for social engagement, and learning emotional competencies (Alshehri et al., Reference Alshehri, Yildirim and Vostanis2020; Sege & Browne, Reference Sege and Browne2017). Research shows that positive childhood behaviours are associated with decreased emotional problems in adulthood and increased wellbeing (Richards & Huppert, Reference Richards and Huppert2011). Furthermore, positive childhood experiences are associated with job satisfaction, positive relationships with family and friends, and engagement in social activities (Richards & Huppert, Reference Richards and Huppert2011; Yildirim et al., Reference Yildirim, Iqbal, Khan, O’Reilly and Vostanis2020). Therefore, individuals who have healthy childhoods are more likely to have positive reflections of these experiences in later years (Bethell et al., Reference Bethell, Jones, Gombojav, Linkenbach and Sege2019; Oliviera et al., Reference Oliveira, Ferreira and Mendes2016; Özaslan & Yıldırım, Reference Özaslan and Yıldırım2021). Additionally, childhood experiences are positively associated with middle-age wellbeing and happiness, which help individuals to cope with mental health problems (Richards & Huppert, Reference Richards and Huppert2011).

Individuals who spend their childhood under difficult conditions can experience adversities and challenges during their adolescence and adulthood (Anda et al., Reference Anda, Croft, Felitti, Nordenberg, Giles, Williamson and Giovino1999; Chapman et al., Reference Chapman, Whitfield, Felitti, Dube, Edwards and Anda2004; Petrucelli et al., Reference Petruccelli, Davis and Berman2019; Sonu et al., Reference Sonu, Post and Feinglass2019). Negative childhood events, including trauma and losses, are often the focal point of studies examining childhood experiences and their effects on various psychological structures (Bonanno, Reference Bonanno2004; Cicek, Reference Cicek2020; Domhardt et al., Reference Domhardt, Münzer, Fegert and Goldbeck2015). More broadly, the effects of physical, social, emotional, cognitive and behavioural traumas, and negative experiences in lifelong development are associated with various factors such as social support, emotional competence, coping, social attachment, and optimism (Bonanno, Reference Bonanno2004; Domhardt et al., Reference Domhardt, Münzer, Fegert and Goldbeck2015; Elmore et al., Reference Elmore, Crouch and Chowdhury2020). Similarly, the contribution of positive experiences of childhood to adulthood should be evaluated from a positive psychology perspective to gain a more comprehensive insight regarding psychological health (Tanhan, Reference Tanhan2019; Tanhan et al., Reference Tanhan, Yavuz, Young, Nalbant, Arslan, Yıldırım, Ulusoy, Genç, Erol Uğur and Cicek2020; Yıldırım & Tanrıverdi, Reference Yıldırım and Tanrıverdi2021). Focusing on positive childhood experiences may be important in terms of examining the possible effects of positive conditions of childhood to mental health outcomes. Thus, this study focused on the relationship between positive childhood experiences and positive psychological constructs of self-esteem and psychological resilience.

There are various challenges and stress caused by childhood trauma. To use effective coping strategies and methods in the face of these challenges and stressful situations, individuals must be psychological healthy (Compas et al., Reference Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen and Wadsworth2001). Psychological resilience is defined as the ability to show positive reactions and use effective coping skills to overcome adversities, despite adverse life events that may pose a serious threat to the development of individuals (Masten, Reference Masten2001). Negative experiences and traumas experienced in childhood can negatively affect individuals’ psychological resilience during adulthood (Özaslan et al., Reference Özaslan, Yıldırım, Güney, Güzel and İşeri2021; Turk-Kurtca & Kocaturk, Reference Turk-Kurtca and Kocaturk2020). Research suggests the examination of childhood problems in relation to psychological strengths should include resilience (Masten, Reference Masten2014). The effects of positive childhood experiences can occur in various aspects of young adulthood, such as social sensitivity, production, responsibility, interpersonal connections, and physical exercise (Kosterman et al., Reference Kosterman, Mason, Haggerty, Hawkins, Spoth and Redmond2011). However, problematic behaviours, such as substance use in adolescence, decrease positive functionality in young adulthood (Newcomb & McGee, Reference Newcomb and McGee1991). Research in this regard reported that experiences such as academic achievement and positive peer relationships in childhood and adolescence are associated with the psychological resilience of individuals in early adulthood (Skodol et al., Reference Skodol, Bender, Pagano, Shea, Yen, Sanislow, Grilo, Daversa, Stout, Zanarini, McGlashan and Gunderson2007). Positive childhood experiences are related to psychological resilience in individuals, while negative childhood experiences and low psychological resilience are associated with a higher level of depression (Elmore et al., Reference Elmore, Crouch and Chowdhury2020; Yildirim & Balahmar, Reference Yildirim and Balahmar2020).

Another psychological variable that is closely related to childhood experiences is self-esteem. Individuals who receive support from their families and develop positive peer relationships in childhood have higher self-esteem (Franco & Levitt, Reference Franco and Levitt1998). However, there are significant and negative relationships between negative childhood experiences and various psychosocial and physical factors, such as sexual abuse and neglect, and parental violence (Matsuura et al., Reference Matsuura, Hashimoto and Toichi2009; Özaslan & Yıldırım, Reference Özaslan and Yıldırım2021). There are also findings suggesting that self-esteem plays a mediating role in the relationships between physical neglect, emotional abuse and important mental health outcomes, including depressive symptoms and subjective wellbeing (Yildirim et al., Reference Yildirim, Alshehri and Aziz2019; Yoon et al., Reference Yoon, Cho and Yoon2019). The available evidence typically suggests that adverse life experiences have a negative impact on self-esteem. Positive childhood experiences, on the other hand, play an important role in developing self-esteem and resilience. As such, this study examined positive childhood experiences as predictors of self-esteem and psychological resilience.

Results

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics, such as mean, standard deviation, tolerance factor (TF) and variance inflation factor (VIF) and correlation results. There was a significant and positive correlation between positive childhood experiences and self-esteem (r = .52, p < .001), positive childhood experiences and psychological resilience (r = .27, p < .001), and self-esteem and psychological resilience (r = .49, p < .001).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables

Note: TF, tolerance factor; VIF, variance inflation factor.

To test the assumptions of SEM, distribution of the variables, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity are provided in Table 1. Besides, the items in the scales were parcelled with new dimensions. To do this, an explanatory factor analysis was run for each scale. According to item-total correlations, all items were ranged from the highest score to the lowest score.

All the scales in the present study were split up into three parcels. Aligned with the item parcelling process, the items with the highest item-total correlation coefficients were assigned parcel one, the second highest to parcel two, and the third highest to parcel three. After that, the fourth highest was assigned to parcel three, the fifth to parcel two, and the sixth to parcel one. This process was completed by assigning all items to every three parcels for each variable. There are some advantages of the parcelling procedure for testing the theoretical model, including producing higher reliability and goodness of fit indices in SEM (Little et al., Reference Little, Cunningham, Shahar and Widaman2002; Little et al., Reference Little, Rhemtulla, Gibson and Schoemann2013).

Before testing the models through SEM, the measurement model was initially tested. According to this, the relative CMIN, GFI, CFI, NFI and RMSEA were calculated (see Table 2 and Figure 1). Fit values of measurement model were as follows: CMIN/df = 2.50, p < .001, GFI = .98, NFI = .99, CFI = .99 and RMSEA = .051, suggesting good data model fit.

Table 2. Measurement model results

Note: *Hu and Bentler (Reference Hu and Bentler1999); CMIN, relative chi-square index; GFI, goodness of fit index; NFI, normed fit index; CFI, comparative fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation.

Figure 1. Measurement model of variables.

In the theoretical model, the same fit statistics were used to evaluate the proposed model. The results showed that positive childhood experiences significantly predicted self-esteem (H1) and psychological resilience (H2). Self-esteem also significantly affected psychological resilience positively (H3).

In the first model (see Figure 2), positive childhood experiences had a direct effect on resilience positively (R ² = .071 B = .27 p < .001). The model fit indices were as follows: CMIN/df = 2.50, p < .001, GFI = .98, NFI = .99, CFI = .99 and RMSEA = .051 (see Table 3).

Figure 2. Structural equation modelling with the direct effect of positive childhood experiences on psychological resilience.

Table 3. The results of structural equation modelling

Note: *Hu and Bentler (Reference Hu and Bentler1999); CMIN, relative chi-square index; GFI, goodness of fit index; NFI, normed fit index; CFI, comparative fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation.

In the second model (see Figure 3), the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between positive childhood experiences and psychological resilience was examined and regression coefficient, standard error, critical ratio, p value and R ² values are given in Table 4 (R ² = .237, B1 = .517, B2 = .472, B3 = .028, p < .001). When self-esteem was included in the model as a mediator, the effect of positive childhood experiences on psychological resilience decreased from .27 to .03, and there was no significant relationship between these two variables. According to this model, positive childhood experiences significantly predicted psychological resilience with a full mediation role of self-esteem. Therefore, the fourth hypothesis of the study was also accepted.

Figure 3. Structural equation modelling with the mediation of self-esteem on the relationship between positive childhood experiences and psychological resilience.

Table 4. Mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between positive childhood experiences and psychological resilience