Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to physical, neuropsychological, and emotional deficits that interfere with the individual's capacity to return to his or her former lifestyle. This review focuses on social cognition, that is, the capacity to attend to, recognize and interpret interpersonal cues that guide social behavior. Social cognition entails “hot” processes, that is, emotion perception and emotional empathy and “cold” processes, that is, the ability to infer the beliefs, feelings, and intentions of others (theory of mind: ToM) to see their point of view (cognitive empathy) and what they mean when communicating (pragmatic inference). This review critically examines research attesting to deficits in each of these domains and also examines evidence for theorized mechanisms including specific neural networks, the role of simulation, and non-social cognition. Current research is hampered by small, heterogeneous samples and the inherent complexity of TBI pathology. Nevertheless, there is evidence that facets of social cognition are impaired in this population. New assessment tools to measure social cognition following TBI are required that predict everyday social functioning. In addition, research into remediation needs to be guided by the growing empirical base for understanding social cognition that may yet reveal how deficits dissociate following TBI. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–16)

Logopenic progressive aphasia (LPA) is a form of primary progressive aphasia (PPA) characterized by hesitant speech with marked impairment in naming and repetition. LPA is associated with brain atrophy in the left temporal and inferior parietal cortices and is predominantly associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. In contrast to LPA, “typical” AD is commonly associated with episodic memory disturbance and bilateral medial temporal lobe atrophy. Recent evidence suggests verbal short-term memory is more impaired than visuospatial short-term memory in LPA. This study investigated verbal and visuospatial short-term memory in 12 LPA and 12 AD patients matched for disease severity, and in 12 age- and education-matched healthy controls. Overall, both patient groups showed significantly reduced verbal and visuospatial spans compared with controls. In addition, LPA patients performed significantly worse than AD patients on both forward and backward conditions of the Digit Span task. In contrast, no difference was present between patient groups on either version of the Spatial Span task. Importantly, LPA patients showed better visuospatial than verbal span whereas AD patients and controls did not differ across modality. This study demonstrates the specificity of the short-term memory disturbance in LPA, which arises from a breakdown of the phonological system. (JINS, 2012, 19, 1–7)

This study compared mathematical outcomes in children with predominantly moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI; n = 50) or orthopedic injury (OI; n=47) at 2 and 24 months post-injury. Working memory and its contribution to math outcomes at 24 months post-injury was also examined. Participants were administered an experimental cognitive addition task and standardized measures of calculation, math fluency, and applied problems; as well as experimental measures of verbal and visual-spatial working memory. Although children with TBI did not have deficits in foundational math fact retrieval, they performed more poorly than OIs on standardized measures of math. In the TBI group, performance on standardized measures was predicted by age at injury, socioeconomic status, and the duration of impaired consciousness. Children with TBI showed impairments on verbal, but not visual working memory relative to children with OI. Verbal working memory mediated group differences on math calculations and applied problems at 24 months post-injury. Children with TBI have difficulties in mathematics, but do not have deficits in math fact retrieval, a signature deficit of math disabilities. Results are discussed with reference to models of mathematical cognition and disability and the role of working memory in math learning and performance for children with TBI. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–10)

According to the procedural deficit hypothesis (PDH), abnormal development in the procedural memory system could account for the language deficits observed in specific language impairment (SLI). Recent studies have supported this hypothesis by using a serial reaction time (SRT) task, during which a slower learning rate is observed in children with SLI compared to controls. Recently, we obtained contrasting results, demonstrating that children with SLI were able to learn a sequence as quickly and as accurately as controls. These discrepancies could be related to differences in the statistical structure of the SRT sequence between these studies. The aim of this study was to further assess, in a group of 21 children with SLI, the PDH with second-order conditional sequences, which are more difficult to learn than those used in previous studies. Our results show that children with SLI had impaired procedural memory, as evidenced by both longer reaction times and no sign of sequence-specific learning in comparison with typically developing controls. These results are consistent with the PDH proposed by Ullman and Pierpont (2005) and suggest that procedural sequence-learning in SLI children depends on the complexity of the to-be-learned sequence. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–8)

The current study explored the picture naming performance of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). First, we evaluated the utility of the Multilingual Naming Test (MINT; Gollan et al., 2011), which was designed to assess naming skills in speakers of multiple languages, for detecting naming impairments in monolingual AD and amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI). If the MINT were sensitive to linguistic impairment in AD, using it in clinical practice might have advantages over using tests exclusively designed for English monolinguals. We found that the MINT can be used with both monolinguals and bilinguals: A 32-item subset of the MINT is best for distinguishing monolingual patients from controls, while the full MINT is best for assessing degree of bilingualism and language dominance in bilinguals. We then investigated the cognitive mechanisms underlying naming impairment in AD. To this end, we explored which MINT item characteristics best predicted performance differences between monolingual patients and controls. We found that contextual diversity and imageability, but not word frequency (nor words’ number of senses), contributed unique variance to explaining naming impairments in AD. These findings suggest a semantic component to the naming impairment in AD (modulated by names’ semantic richness and network size). (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–12)

Deficits in prospective memory (PM; i.e., enacting previously learned actions at the right occasion) and risky decision-making (i.e., making choices with a high chance of undesirable/dangerous outcomes) are both common among individuals with substance use disorders (SUD). Previous research has raised the possibility of a specific relationship between PM and risk-taking, and the present study aimed to systematically study if PM provides unique variance in the prediction of risky decision-making. Two samples were included: (1) a group of 45 individuals with SUD currently in treatment, and (2) a nonclinical group of 59 university students with high-risk drinking and/or substance use. Regression analyses indicated that time-based, but not event-based, PM predicted increased risky behavior (e.g., risky sexual practices and criminal behaviors) in both groups after controlling for demographic, psychiatric, and substance use variables, as well as other neuropsychological functions. The current findings contribute to the growing literature supporting the role of PM as a predictor of everyday functioning, and suggest that cognitive rehabilitation may be an important avenue of research as an adjunct to traditional substance use treatment, particularly in addressing the potential adverse effects of PM deficits in the implementation of treatment-related homework activities and risk management strategies. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–11)

Parkinson's disease (PD) patient and caregiver reports of patient functioning are often used interchangeably in clinical and research settings; however, the consistency of these reports is largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the consistency and predictors of discrepancy between self- and caregiver reports of patient apathy, disinhibition, and executive dysfunction. Fifty-one pairs of nondemented PD patients and their caregivers completed the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale (FrSBe). Patients were administered a neuropsychological battery, and mood and burden were assessed in a subset of caregivers. Patients and caregivers significantly differed in their ratings of all retrospective prediagnosis behaviors and current levels of disinhibition. Current levodopa equivalent dosages predicted patient-caregiver rating differences in prediagnosis and current apathy and current executive dysfunction, while patient motor function, cognition, and mood failed to predict any disparities in ratings. Caregiver burden and depression were associated with apathy rating discrepancies, while burden was associated with discrepancies in ratings of disinhibition. These results suggest that consistency of patient and caregiver behavioral ratings may vary depending on the behavior assessed; and underscore the importance of considering the reporter when using subjective measures, as discrepancies in behavioral reports may be influenced by specific patient and/or caregiver symptoms or factors. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–10)

Cognitive performance can be impacted by many non-neurological factors, including preexisting expectations. The phenomenon of stereotype threat, or reduced cognitive performance due to preexisting beliefs, can apply to individuals following neurological injury (i.e., “diagnosis threat”). We examined the effect of diagnosis threat on cognitive performance and symptom reporting following concussions while accounting for group identification (i.e., extent to which one's identity is tied to being concussed). We also examined gender stereotype threat (i.e., women and math ability) to understand how these two related threat effects compare. Participants with a history of concussion were randomly assigned to one of three instructional sets emphasizing concussion history or gender, or neutral instructions. Individuals without a history of concussion served as a comparison group. Results revealed an effect of diagnosis threat on cognitive performance after group identification was taken into account, but only in male participants. In contrast, an underlying gender stereotype threat was observed in females across conditions, which was counteracted in the gender stereotype condition (i.e., stereotype reactance effect) due to the type of threat cues used. Also, controls exhibited greater symptom reporting than individuals with a concussion. Our findings highlight the importance of considering non-neurological factors impacting cognitive performance. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–9)

Loring et al. (Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 2005:27;610–617) observed relationships between VSVT hard item performance and IQ and memory indices in epilepsy surgical candidates, with a potential confound of low FSIQ on VSVT performance. The present study replicated the Loring et al. study in a larger sample and extended their findings by examining the relationships among VSVT performance, FSIQ, and working memory. A total of 404 patients with medically intractable epilepsy completed a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. Differences in WAIS-III and WMS-III performance were examined as a function of VSVT hard score categories as determined by Grote et al. (2000)—that is, valid, >20/24; questionable, 18–20; or invalid, <18. Quantile regression models were constructed to compare the strength of the relationship between FSIQ and VSVT at various points of the FSIQ distribution. Linear regression analyses examined working memory as a potential mediator between FSIQ and VSVT performance. The invalid group performed more poorly than the valid and questionable groups on multiple measures of intelligence and memory. The strength of the relationship between FSIQ and VSVT hard item performance decreased as FSIQ increased, and working memory mediated this relationship. Results suggest VSVT hard item scores may be impacted by working memory difficulties and/or low intellectual functioning. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–10)

Although neurocognitive deficits are an integral characteristic of schizophrenia, there is inconclusive evidence as to whether they manifest across the schizophrenia-spectrum. We conducted two studies and a meta-analysis comparing neurocognitive functioning between psychometrically defined schizotypy and control groups recruited from a college population. Study One compared groups on measures of specific and global neurocognition, and subjective and objective quality of life. Study Two examined working memory and subjective cognitive complaints. Across both studies, the schizotypy group showed notably decreased subjective (d = 1.52) and objective (d = 1.02) quality of life and greater subjective cognitive complaints (d = 1.88); however, neurocognition was normal across all measures (d's < .35). Our meta-analysis of 33 studies examining neurocognition in at-risk college students revealed between-group differences in the negligible effect size range for most domains. The schizotypy group demonstrated deficits of a small effect size for working memory and set-shifting abilities. Although at-risk individuals report relatively profound neurocognitive deficits and impoverished quality of life, neurocognitive functioning assessed behaviorally is largely intact. Our data suggest that traditionally defined neurocognitive deficits do not approximate the magnitude of subjective complaints associated with psychometrically defined schizotypy. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–14)

Social communication involves influencing what other people think and feel about themselves. We use the term conative theory of mind (ToM) to refer to communicative interactions involving one person trying to influence the mental and emotional state of another, paradigmatic examples of which are irony and empathy. This study reports how children with traumatic brain injury (TBI) understand ironic criticism and empathic praise, on a task requiring them to identify speaker belief and intention for direct conative speech acts involving literal truth, and indirect speech acts involving either ironic criticism or empathic praise. Participants were 71 children in the chronic state of a single TBI and 57 age- and gender-matched children with orthopedic injuries (OI). Group differences emerged on indirect speech acts involving conation (i.e., irony and empathy), but not on structurally and linguistically identical direct speech acts, suggesting specific deficits in this aspect of social cognition in school-age children with TBI. Deficits in children with mild-moderate TBI were less widespread and more selective than those of children with more severe injuries. Deficits in understanding the social, conative function of indirect speech acts like irony and empathy have widespread and deep implications for social function in children with TBI. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–11)

Recent studies suggest that white matter abnormalities contribute to both motor and non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The present study was designed to investigate the degree to which diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) indices are related to executive function in Parkinson's patients. We used tract-based spatial statistics to compare DTI data from 15 patients to 15 healthy, age- and education-matched controls. We then extracted mean values of fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) within an a priori frontal mask. Executive function composite Z scores were regressed against these DTI indices, age, and total intracranial volume. In Parkinson's patients, FA was related to executive composite scores, and both indices were related to Stroop interference scores. We conclude that white matter microstructural abnormalities contribute to cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease. Further work is needed to determine whether these white matter changes reflect the pathological process or a clinically important comorbidity. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–6)

The study explores the potential clinical value of reading fluency measures in complementing demographic variables as indices of current intellectual capacity. IQ estimates (based on the PPVT-R, WASI Vocabulary and Block Design subtests) were obtained from a representative, non-clinical sample of 386 Greek adults aged 48–87 years along with two measures of reading efficiency (one involving relatively high-frequency words—WRE—and the second comprised of phonotactically matched pseudowords—PsWRE). Both reading measures (number of items read correctly in 45 s) accounted for significant portions of variability in demographically adjusted verbal and performance IQ indices. Reading measures provided IQ estimates which were significantly closer to those predicted by demographic variables alone in up to 22% of individuals with fewer than 7 (across all ages) or 13 years of formal education (in the 70–87 year age range). PsWRE scores slightly outperformed WRE scores in predicting a person's estimated verbal or performance IQ. Results are discussed in the context of previous findings using reading accuracy measures for low-frequency words with exceptional spellings in less transparent orthographic systems such as English. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–7)