Due to increased food demand, the use of herbicides is both necessary and on the rise. Several herbicide classes target photosynthetic electron transport: Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) Groups 5, 6, and 22. These herbicides are used in large amounts in many different cropping systems to control several species of broadleaf and grass weeds. This article provides a comprehensive review of what these photosynthesis inhibitors are, how they are used, and their modes of action. Presently, commercial herbicides only inhibit electron flow at two different sites: photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI). Herbicides that inhibit electron flow at PSII block the movement of electrons down the electron transport chain, while those that inhibit electron flow at PSI accept electrons. Necrosis developing on the leaves of plants treated with PSII and PSI inhibitors is due to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Evolution of resistance, toxicity concerns, and other limitations of these herbicides call for the exploration of new chemistries that can be used to target this pathway.

Weed invasion has become increasingly recognized as a major threat to the practice of sustainable agriculture and the maintenance of natural ecosystems around the world. Without effective and ongoing management strategies, many weed species have the aggressive capacity to alter ecosystem functions and reduce the economic potential of the land into which they have been introduced. Although traditional weed management strategies can be useful in eliminating certain weeds, these approaches can be costly, economically damaging, and laborious and can result in variable long-term success. To further add to these challenges, several weed species have now developed resistance to a range of herbicide modes of action, which, to date, have been the major mechanism of weed control. As a result, it is anticipated that the use of emerging technology will help to provide a solution for the economical and environmentally sustainable management of various weeds. Of particular interest, emerging technology in the areas of weed detection and control (chemical, mechanical, electrical, laser, and thermal) has shown promising signs of improving long-term weed management strategies. These methods can also be assisted by, or integrated alongside, other technology, such as artificial intelligence or computer vision techniques for improved efficiency. To provide an overview of this topic, this review evaluates a range of emerging technology used for the detection and control of various weeds and explores the challenges and opportunities of their application within the field.

Recently, there has been emphasis on the need to shift away from the use of synthetic chemical herbicides to low-risk alternatives derived from natural sources. This is aimed at lowering or averting the negative impact synthetic herbicides have on the environment and dealing with the emergence of weed species resistant to these chemicals. As a result, more stringent measures or outright bans on the use of most synthetic herbicides have been put in place by regulatory bodies. As seaweeds are abundant resources in the marine environment that have the capacity to produce diverse bioactive compounds, they could serve as sustainably viable, natural, and low-risk alternatives/sources to explore for potential phytotoxic capabilities. This could in turn help to enhance or boost the availability of effective solutions in the global bioherbicide market. This review highlights the prospects of using seaweeds as novel biopesticides for the control and management of various plant pests, including weed species, and for the development of sustainable agriculture/forestry practices. More specifically, it focuses on their use as a rich natural source for novel bioherbicide development, a potential that has remained underexplored for many years. However, to unlock the full potential of seaweed-derived bioherbicides and to create a potential path toward their development, increased research and development efforts are urgently needed to tackle and overcome possible constraints posed in this novel area, such as variability in seaweed chemical composition, formulation technologies, stability and efficacy of seaweed bioactive compounds, cost and scalability, and environmental considerations.

Herbicides are the primary tool for controlling weeds in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and are crucial to sustainable peanut production in the United States. The literature on chemical weed management in peanut in the past 53 yr (1970 to 2022) in the United States was systematically reviewed to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of different herbicides and identify current research gaps in chemical weed management. Residual weed control in peanut is achieved mainly with dimethenamid-P, ethalfluralin, pendimethalin, and S-metolachlor. More recently, the use of the protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitor flumioxazin and acetolactate synthase inhibitors, such as diclosulam, for residual weed control in peanut has increased considerably. Postemergence broadleaf weed control in peanut is achieved mainly with acifluorfen, bentazon, diclosulam, imazapic, lactofen, paraquat, and 2,4-DB, while the graminicides clethodim and sethoxydim are the major postemergence grass weed control herbicides in peanut. Although several herbicides are available for weed control in peanut, no single herbicide can provide season-long weed control due to limited application timing, lack of extended residual activity, variability in weed control spectrum, and rotational restrictions. Therefore, effective weed management in peanut often requires herbicide mixtures and/or sequential application of preplant-incorporated, preemergence, and/or postemergence herbicides. However, the available literature showed a substantive range in herbicide efficacy due to variations in environmental conditions and flushes of weed germination across years and locations. Despite the relatively high efficacy of herbicides, the selection of herbicide-resistant weeds is another area of increasing concern. Future research should focus on developing new strategies for preventing or delaying the development of resistance and improving herbicide efficacy within the context of climate change and emerging constraints such as water shortages, rising temperatures, and increasing CO2 concentration.

Herbicide resistance is often viewed as a complex problem in need of innovative management solutions. Because of the transboundary mobility of many weeds, resistance to herbicides is also viewed as a community-scale issue. Consequently, the idea of greater coordination among resource users—especially growers—is often promoted as a management approach. Recently, scholars have framed herbicide resistance as a commons problem in need of collective action. Specifically, social scientists have explored the utility of adopting bottom-up, community-based approaches to help solve the growing problem of herbicide resistance through a framework for interpreting the commons known as common pool resource theory. This article analyzes how herbicide resistance fits—and fails to fit—within common pool resource theory and offers an updated conceptual framework from which to build future work. We argue that the application of common pool resource theory to herbicide-resistance management is underdeveloped, and approaches based on this theory have shown little success. The relevance of common pool resource theory for informing herbicide-resistance management is less settled than existing scholarship has suggested, and other frameworks for approaching transboundary resource problems—such as co-production of knowledge and participatory action research—warrant consideration.

Understanding the timing of weed emergence is crucial to effective management. Management practices implemented too early may fail to completely control late-emerging seedlings, whereas management practices implemented too late will suffer from low efficacy. Weed emergence times reflect biological factors, such as seed dormancy and germination requirements, as well as environmental conditions. We conducted a systematic review of studies that developed models to predict weed emergence temporal patterns. We screened 1,854 studies, 98 of which were included in the final dataset. Most of the studies included were conducted in North America (51%) or Europe (30%). A wide variety of weed species (102) and families (21) were included, and many studies modeled several weeds. Grass weeds (Poaceae) were modeled most frequently (83 instances). Most weeds (40%) had base temperature ${T_{\rm{b}}}$ values between 0 and 5 C, and 38% had base water potential ${{\rm{\psi }}_{\rm{b}}}$ ranging from −1.0 to −0.5 MPa. Most studies used empirical parametric models, such as Weibull (40%) or Gompertz (30%) models. Nonparametric and mechanistic models were also represented. Models varied in their biological and environmental data requirements. In general, empirical parametric models based on hydrothermal time (i.e., time above base temperature and water potential thresholds) represented a good balance between ease of use and prediction accuracy. Soft computing approaches such as artificial neural networks demonstrated substantial potential in situations with complex emergence patterns and limited data availability, although they (soft computing approaches) can be susceptible to overfitting. Our study also demonstrated variability in model performance and limited generalizability across species and regions. This finding underscores the need for context-specific and well-validated weed emergence models to inform management, especially in the context of climate change.

Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) was first reported in Iowa in 2013 and has continued to spread across the state over the last decade. Amaranthus palmeri is widely recognized as one of the more economically important weeds in production agriculture. The presence of A. palmeri in Iowa is concerning as the species has evolved resistance to ten herbicide sites of action, however, no formal characterization has been conducted on Iowa populations. Therefore, herbicide assays were conducted on an A. palmeri population collected in Harrison County, IA, in 2023 (Southwest Palmer Amaranth [SWPA]) and a known herbicide-susceptible population collected from Nebraska in 2001 (Palmer Amaranth Susceptible [PAS]). The two populations were treated with preemergence and postemergence herbicides commonly used in Iowa. The treatments included preemergence applications of atrazine, metribuzin, and mesotrione and postemergence applications of atrazine, imazethapyr, glyphosate, lactofen, mesotrione, glufosinate, 2,4-D, and dicamba at 1× and 4× the labeled rates. Survival frequency of SWPA was >90% when treated postemergence with 1× rates of imazethapyr, atrazine, glyphosate, and mesotrione compared with ≤6% for PAS. Both SWPA and PAS had 0% survival when treated with lactofen, glufosinate, 2,4-D, and dicamba at the 1× or 4× rates. Plant population density reduction for SWPA was 53% and 40% in response to 1× rates of preemergence-applied mesotrione and atrazine, respectively. Metribuzin applied preemergence reduced SWPA plant population density by >90% at both rates. Dose–response experiments revealed the 50% effective doses (ED50) of mesotrione, glyphosate, imazethapyr, and atrazine for SWPA were 9.5-,8.5-, 71-, and 40-fold greater than for PAS, respectively. The results confirm that SWPA is four-way multiple-herbicide resistant. Amaranthus palmeri infestations are likely to continue to spread within Iowa; therefore, diversified weed management programs that include early detection, rapid response, and effective multi-tactic management strategies will be required for control.

Quinclorac controls crabgrass (Digitaria spp.) in cool- and warm-season turfgrass species. Herbicide-resistant smooth crabgrass [Digitaria ischaemum (Schreb.) Schreb. ex Muhl.] biotypes have evolved due to recurrent usage of quinclorac. Two Mississippi populations (MSU1 and MSU2) of D. ischaemum were characterized using standard greenhouse dose–response screens to assess their resistance relative to known susceptible populations. Subsequent investigations explored mechanisms of resistance, including examining cyanide accumulation, glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity, and the potential involvement of cytochrome P450s in MSU1, MSU2, and a susceptible (SMT2). Resistant populations MSU1 and MSU2 required 80 and 5 times more quinclorac, respectively, to reach 50% biomass reduction than susceptible populations. The SMT2 biotype accumulated three times more cyanide than the resistant MSU1 and MSU2 populations. GST activity was elevated in resistant MSU1 and MSU2 populations. Furthermore, quinclorac concentrations in treated resistant populations were elevated when plants were pretreated with the P450 inhibitor malathion. These findings suggest a non–target site based mechanism of resistance involving the accumulation of cyanide. This may provide a scientific basis for understanding the occurrence of quinclorac-resistant D. ischaemum, although further research is needed to investigate potential target-site mechanisms of resistance.

Waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer] is one of the most troublesome weeds in the United States. An A. tuberculatus population (CHR) was identified in Illinois, USA, as resistant to herbicides from six different site-of-action groups. Recently, the same population was also recognized as dicamba resistant. This study aimed to identify key resistance genes and the putative dicamba resistance mechanism in A. tuberculatus via transcriptomics analysis. Multiple differentially expressed (DE) genes and co-expression gene modules were identified as associated with dicamba resistance. Specifically, genes encoding glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), ATP-binding cassette transporters, peroxidases, and uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) were identified. Results indicated enhanced oxidative stress tolerance as the primary mechanism for reducing dicamba toxicity. Results also point to potential glycosylation via UGTs and conjugation via GSTs of dicamba and its by-products. This is the first transcriptomics characterization of dicamba resistance in A. tuberculatus. Multiple non-target-site resistance genes were identified, indicating a cross-resistance pattern in the CHR population leading to a putative-enhanced oxidative stress response. Regions of multiple DE genes (i.e., genomic hot spots) across the A. tuberculatus genome corroborate previous results and potentially add to the complexity of non-target-site resistance traits.

Rapid increase in the hectarage and agricultural systems that use cover cropping for soil conservation and improvement, soil moisture retention, and weed management has highlighted the need to develop formal breeding programs for cover crop species. Cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) is preferred by many growers due to high biomass production and weed-suppression potential, which is believed to be partially due to allelopathy. Rye germplasm exhibits large variability in allelopathic activity, which could be used to breed rye with enhanced weed suppression. Here, we provide an overview of rye history and breeding and describe a strategy to develop rye lines with increased allelopathic activity. The discussion focuses on ways to deal with important challenges to achieving this goal, including obligate cross-pollination and its consequent high segregation levels and the need to quantify allelopathic activity under field conditions. This review seeks to encourage weed scientists to collaborate with plant breeders and promote the development of cover crop cultivars better suited to reduce weed populations.

Allohexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is tolerant to halauxifen-methyl (HM) via rapid detoxification of the phytotoxic form of HM, halauxifen acid (HA), to non-phytotoxic metabolites. Previous research utilizing ‘Chinese Spring’ (CS) wheat, alien substitution (i.e., endogenous chromosome pair substituted with a homoeologous pair from diploid Sears’ goatgrass (Aegilops searsii M. Feldman & M. Kislev) (AS), or nullisomic-tetrasomic (NT) lines indicated plants lacking chromosome 5A are more sensitive than CS to HM. We hypothesized the increased HM sensitivity of these plants results from losing gene(s) on chromosome 5A associated with HA metabolism, which leads to a reduced HA detoxification rate relative to CS. To compare HA abundance among AS, CS, alien substitution, and NT lines during a time course, two excised-leaf studies using unlabeled HM and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry analyses were performed. Aegilops searsii accumulated more HA than CS did, and each substitution line at 8, 12, and 24 h after treatment (HAT). Furthermore, only the wheat substitution line lacking chromosome 5A displayed greater abundance of HA relative to CS (2.4- to 3.8-fold, depending on the time point). In contrast, HA abundances in lines possessing chromosome 5A were not different than HA abundances in CS at all time points. When NT lines were compared with CS, the nullisomic 5D-tetrasomic 5A (N5D-T5A) line displayed similar HA abundance, whereas the nullisomic 5A-tetrasomic 5D (N5A-T5D) accumulated approximately 3-fold more HA at 12 and 24 HAT. These results biochemically support the hypothesis that genes encoding HA-detoxifying enzyme(s) are located on wheat chromosome 5A and corroborate findings from previous greenhouse phenotypic experiments. Future experimentation is needed to identify and characterize genes and enzymes on wheat chromosome 5A involved with HA detoxification, which may include cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, unknown oxidases, UDP-dependent glucosyltransferases, or, potentially, transcription factors that regulate expression of these genes associated with HA detoxification.

The success of the insect sterile technique (IST) in managing insect pests raised the hypothesis that a similar approach could be employed to control weed populations. Here, we investigated the feasibility of employing irradiated sterile pollen as a means to disrupt seed production in dioecious weeds, specifically focusing on Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson). Our goal was to determine the optimal irradiation dose that strikes a balance between inducing sterility and preserving competitiveness, as excessive doses could result in pollen mortality, while low doses may retain fertility. Plants were grown in a greenhouse during the summer of 2020 and spring of 2021. Once they reached the flowering stage, male and female individuals were isolated. Mature pollen samples were collected and exposed to varying dosages (0, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 Gy) of gamma rays. These irradiated and non-irradiated pollen samples were used in pollen viability assessments and hand-pollination experiments. In the hand-pollination study conducted in 2020, we employed six pollination treatments using different irradiation doses. The results showed that 300 Gy was the most effective dose, resulting in a maximum reduction of 30% in seed set compared with open pollination when irradiated pollen had prior access to the stigma through artificial pollination before open pollination. In 2021, to simulate real field conditions, three additional treatments were introduced into the study, further confirming the effectiveness of the optimal 300 Gy dose. Our findings indicate that the sterile pollen technique (SPT) using irradiated pollen can be a valuable approach for reducing weed seed production. SPT also holds potential for broad-spectrum weed control by mixing sterile pollen from multiple weed species in a single application. Additionally, it could aid in managing herbicide-resistant weeds that have survived in-season control efforts. This research contributes to the development of novel and sustainable weed management strategies.

The evolution of herbicide resistance in weeds can reduce the herbicide’s efficacy, depleting crop yield and quality. Our group previously confirmed 2,4-D resistance in three Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) populations (R1 to R3). In the current study, the first filial (F1) seeds of 2,4-D–resistant populations were subjected to screening tests for resistance to other auxin-mimicking herbicides, florpyrauxifen-benzyl (FPB; 30 g ai ha−1) and dicamba (560 g ae ha−1). Dicamba killed all resistant populations. FPB provided 100% control of only the R3 population. Sensitivities to FPB were reduced by 2 and 35 percentage points in R1 and R2 populations, respectively. Pretreatment with malathion increased FPB sensitivity by 15 percentage points in the R2 population. FPB resistance characterization and mechanism were evaluated using a purified line of the R2 population (F2). The FPB sensitivity was 29-fold lower in the F2 line than in the susceptible (S) standard. Absorption, translocation, and total metabolism of FPB were similar for S and R2 populations. However, less florpyrauxifen-acid (FPA) was detected in the R2 population (17.0% to 25.4%) than in the S population (22.8% to 33.2%), due to its rapid metabolism and/or reduced production with resistance evolution. Because the results of the non–target site resistance mechanism evaluation observed in this study were insufficient to account for the 29-fold reduced sensitivity of the R2 population to FPB, further genetic studies are needed to investigate the presence of target-site resistance in that population.

This study investigated replicating six generations of glasshouse-based flowering date selection in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) using an adaptation of the population model SOMER (Spatial Orientated Modelling of Evolutionary Resistance). This individual-based model was chosen because it could be altered to contain varying numbers of genes, along with varying levels of environmental influence on the phenotype (namely the heritability). Accurate replication of six generations of genetic change that had occurred in a previous glasshouse-based selection was achieved, without intermediate adjustments. This study found that multiple copies of just two genes were required to reproduce the polygenic flowering time adaptations demonstrated in that previous research. The model included major effect type M1 genes, with linkage and crossing over, and minor effect type M2 genes undergoing independent assortment. Within the model, transmissibility (heritability of each gene type) was parameterized at 0.60 for the M1 genes and 0.45 for the M2 genes. The serviceable parameterization of the genetics of flowering in R. raphanistrum within a population model means that simulated examinations of the effects of external weed control on flowering time adaptations are now more feasible. An accurate and simplified Mendelian-based model replicating the adaptive shifts of flowering time that is controlled by a complex array of genes is useful in predicting life-cycle adaptations to evade weed control measures such as harvest weed seed control, which apply intense adaptive selections on traits that affect seed retention at harvest, including flowering time.

Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) is an invasive aquatic plant that can hybridize with the native northern watermilfoil (M. sibiricum Kom.). These milfoil hybrids (M. spicatum × M. sibiricum) are becoming more prevalent in many lakes where the invasive and the native milfoil co-occur. Hybrid plants are more vigorous than either parent with a faster growth rate and lower sensitivity to some herbicides. The aquatic herbicides endothall and 2,4-D provide two effective modes of action for management of the hybrids. For more than a decade, these two herbicides have been used in combination as an effective control option and a resistance management strategy. How this combination impacts herbicide movement and efficacy is unknown. Therefore, the objective of this research was to determine the activity of endothall and 2,4-D combined compared with activity applied alone. Absorption and translocation of endothall, 2,4-D, and the combination was determined in hybrid plants over a 96-h time course. Endothall accumulation was not impacted when these herbicides were applied in combination; however, 2,4-D accumulation increased by 80%, relative to when 2,4-D was applied alone. Endothall translocation from shoots to roots decreased by almost 50% when applied in combination with 2,4-D (alone = 16.7% ± 2.6%; combination = 9.2% ± 1.2%). Shoot-to-root translocation of 2,4-D also decreased when the two herbicides were applied in combination (24.8% ± 2.6% when applied alone to only 3.93% ± 0.4% when in the presence of endothall). This research demonstrates that combining herbicides can significantly impact herbicide activity in plants. Future research is needed to determine whether this reduced translocation negatively impacts operational effectiveness when these herbicides are applied in combination.

The presence of glyphosate-resistant smooth pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus L.) biotypes has increased in southern Brazil in recent years, presenting the triple amino acid substitution TAP-IVS in 5-enol-pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) previously found in Argentina. Some of these biotypes have morphological characteristics of A. hybridus and redroot amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus L.). The present study aimed to identify, through molecular markers, the herbicide-resistant species of Amaranthus from Brazil that have the TAP-IVS substitution and to analyze the occurrence of pollen-mediated gene flow (PMGF) as the source of the TAP-IVS substitution in these biotypes. Six biotypes were evaluated using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, of which two (AMACHY-S and CAMAQ-R) were molecularly classified as A. hybridus and four (AMACRET-S, AMACVI-S, ARRGR-R, and SAOJER-R) were unclassified. Interestingly, all the glyphosate-resistant biotypes (ARRGR-R, SAOJER-R, and CAMAQ-R) had the TAP-IVS substitution and an increase in EPSPS relative copy number; however, only CAMAQ-R was confirmed as A. hybridus. Although the biotypes ARRGR-R and SAOJER-R are closely related to A. hybridus and green pigweed (Amaranthus powellii S. Watson), their species identity could not be resolved. The biotype SAOJER-R also was resistant to acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicides due to a tryptophan to leucine substitution at position 574 in ALS. The evaluation of 119,746 seedlings in an intraspecific hybridization study of A. hybridus indicated an outcrossing frequency of 0.09%. In contrast, an absence of interspecific hybridization (A. hybridus × unclassified biotype, AMACVI-S) was found after screening 111,429 offspring. Unclassified biotypes might be derived from one or more ancient hybridization events and subsequently evolved the triple mutation independently. Alternatively, such biotypes could have evolved from recent hybridization events, which occur at a frequency below the level of detection in our study.

Hedge cactus (Cereus uruguayanus R. Kiesling; syn.: Cereus hildmannianus K. Schum.) is a columnar cactus that was introduced to Australia as an ornamental plant and has since become invasive in subhumid regions of Queensland and New South Wales. Compared with its congener, queen of the night (Cereus jamacaru DC.), which is currently invasive in both eastern and southern Africa, information on seed biology of C. uruguayanus is lacking. Experiments were conducted to study the effects of alternating day/night temperature, salt stress, water stress, and burial depth on germination and seedling emergence of four seed accessions of C. uruguayanus. Seeds were also subjected to a controlled aging test (CAT) to obtain an estimate of potential persistence under field conditions. The optimum temperature regime for germination of all accessions was 30/20 C. Germination decreased with an increase in sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration, but germination of all accessions (range 26% to 81%) occurred at 160 mM NaCl, indicating very high salt tolerance. Seed germination gradually decreased with an increase in water stress, but germination in all accessions (range 19% to 47%) occurred at −0.8 MPa. Seed viability and dormancy status were unaffected by exposure to salt level (320 mM NaCl) and water (−1.6 MPa) stress under which germination did not occur. Germination responses to all three factors were generally similar to those documented for C. jamacaru. The emergence of C. uruguayanus decreased with an increase in seed burial depth. The highest emergence (43%) was recorded for surface-sown seeds, and emergence was reduced to 0 at a burial depth of 2 cm. CAT results for two seed accessions indicated that seeds of C. uruguayanus are likely to demonstrate extended (>3 yr) persistence under field conditions, a prediction that is supported by evidence that germination of its small (2-mm) seeds is markedly reduced by burial.

Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) is an effective technique for managing wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.), a weed that retains its seed until harvest. However, earlier flowering time (leading to increased seed shedding before harvest) is a risk to HWSC effectiveness. This study investigated the effects of repeated HWSC on the evolution of R. raphanistrum flowering dates, using two methods: an adaptation of the SOMER model that included flowering genes (called SOMEF); and a mathematical calculation of the endpoints of flowering date evolution utilizing the relevant life-history equations. In weed management systems with highly effective herbicides, the additional use of HWSC predicted R. raphanistrum population extinction. Low weed numbers and rapid extinction meant that any gradual evolution in days to first flower (DFF) was insufficient to lead to HWSC evasion. In alternative management systems with less vigorous herbicide control and using HWSC, modeling predicted a maximum 2- to 3-d reduction in DFF. In contrast, mathematical calculations of the phenotypes maximizing seeds returned to the seedbank predicted an endpoint to evolution of 12-d earlier flowering, which matched field observations. However, genetic change postulated by the mathematical calculations was not hampered by a restriction to changing DFF allele frequencies. Unknown accompanying genetic changes could affect germination dates or flowering triggers.

Simulation modeling that included only flowering genes failed to predict the magnitude of an observed 12-d reduction in DFF. Differences between the 12 d observed in the field (and predicted using mathematical calculations) and the modest changes demonstrated in this field-based modeling study are postulated to be due to unaccounted evolutionary changes in R. raphanistrum.