Index
Note: page references in bold denote figures and photographs.
Note: dates glossed for the United Nations Space treaties (Liability Convention, Moon Agreement, Outer Space Treaty, Registration Convention, and Rescue Agreement) are the dates the treaties were opened for signatures.
A-1 (Germany), 258
A-4 (Germany), 258
Abe, Shinzo (prime minister, Japan), 310
Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions (1977),
Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, 244
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979); see Moon Agreement (1979)
Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic (2011), 225
Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UN, 1995), 163
Anderson, Eric (CEO, Space Adventures), 20
Ansari X-Prize, 12
Antarctic Treaty (1959), 103
anti-satellite weapons; see also international humanitarian law (jus in bello); see also right of self-defence
ASAT development, post-2007, 313
China test (2007), responses,
China test (2013), 313
China test (2014), 313
counterspace capabilities,
cumulative effects of testing,
cyber intrusions, 344
deployment and use verification, 275
electronic countermeasures,
IADC guidelines,
India test (2019), 61, ,
India test (2019), responses, 322
intergovernmental organizations, decisions, , 319
Kessler–Cour-Palais syndrome,
kinetic weapons,
laser tests,
Outer Space Treaty (1967), 307
pellet ring,
proximity missions,
Russia test (2021), responses,
UN Charter and self-defense,
unilateral declaration, United States, 335
US test (1985), 265
Apophis (asteroid), 195,
Arbatov, Alexey, 277
Arch Mission Foundation (USA),
Artemis Accords: China reaction to, 160
duty to consult, 174
Global South reaction to, 161
lunar mining,
multilateral law-making, 174
national appropriation, 159
political accord, 159
rationale, 159
safety zones, 3,
safety zones and non-signatory countries, 174
US military, cis-lunar Space,
US–Russia relationship undermined, 160
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, 173
Aso, Taro (foreign minister, Japan), 310
Asteroid Terrestrial-Impact Last Alert System (ATLAS),
Astra Space, 49
astronomy; see also international law, astronomy
anthropogenic occultations, 93
Dark and Quiet Skies, 92
data loss, 92
definition of, 101
ghost streaks, 92
industry guidelines, informal, 93
mega-constellation visibility,
mega-constellations, altitude limit concerns, 96
mega-constellations, threats of,
natural heritage, 97
radio astronomy, 92
satellite brightness,
transient interference,
Atlas V (USA), 121
Austria,
Barnes, Richard, 365
Behnken, Robert (astronaut, NASA), 158
Beidou-2 G2 (navigation satellite, China), 314
Belgium, 147
Belt and Road Initiative, 173
Beresheet (Israel), ,
Bin Cheng, 305
Birnie, Patricia, 182
Blinken, Anthony (Secretary of State, USA), 326
Blue Origin: DRACO program, 34
FAA registration,
lunar lander contract, 16
New Shepard, , 16, ,
Space tourism, 11,
Boothby, Bill, 356
Borrell, Josep (high representative of the European Union for foreign affairs and security policy),
Boyle, Alan, 182
Braun, Wernher von, 259
Breakthrough Listen (SETI project), 297
Butow, Steven, 295
Canada: Artemis Accords signatory, 159
ASAT test ban proposal,
Canadian Space Agency, 317
Kosmos 954 impact, , 88
Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite (NEOSSat), 250
Pikialasorsuaq (North Water Polynya), 64
RadarSat-2, 352
Remote Sensing Space Systems Regulations (2007), 317
response to 2007 China ASAT test, 311
response to 2019 India ASAT test, 324
terrestrial mining companies, 171
Canadian Space Agency, 317
Canary Islands, 191
Capone, Francesca, 108
Case Concerning the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (1997), 243
Catalina Sky Survey, 190
Center for NEO Studies (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA), 198
Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, 248
Chang Zheng 3B (China), 119
Chang’e 4 (lunar lander, China), 291
Chang’e 5 (lunar lander, China), 131
Chelyabinsk event, , 211
Chile, , 191
China: anti-satellite weapon test (2007), 53, 77, 303
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,
Belt and Road Initiative,
Chang’e 4 (lunar lander), 291
Chang’e 5 (lunar lander), 131
collision avoidance maneuver,
Global Times,
Interim Measures on Space Debris Mitigation and Protective Management (2009), 316
PPWT (2014),
response to 2021 Russia ASAT test,
Space-faring state, emergence as,
Working Group on Space Resources,
CHPS (USA), , 298
Chyba, Christopher,
Cislunar Highway Patrol Satellite (CHPS, USA), , 298
cis-lunar Space: arms control, 298
blurring of intentions, 294
Chang’e 4 (lunar lander, China), 291
Cislunar Highway Patrol Satellite (CHPS, USA), 291,
congestion and debris,
debris removal,
definition, 290
international law,
radio astronomy, 296
Space situational awareness, , 298
Space-based monitoring, 290
Clapp, Jennifer, 365
ClearSpace-1 (European Space Agency), 314
Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (USA, 2015), ,
Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), 165
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS): Action Team 14 (hazardous NEO investigation), 211
creation of, 6
Declaration of Legal Principles,
IAWN and SMPAG recommendations,
long-term sustainability of Space activities (LST, 2019), 320
property rights,
ROSCOSMOS, 281
soft law,
Space mining, ,
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (1996), 226,
Connor, Larry, 17
Convention on Cluster Munitions (2008), 184
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1974), 37
Convention on the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (1992), 301
Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972); see Liability Convention (1972)
Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (1972),
Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction (1997), 129, 184,
Corfu Channel Case,
COSPAS-1 (satellite), 364
Crew Dragon (SpaceX): astronaut transport to ISS, 16
duty to rescue, 28
environmental impacts,
passenger/crew distinction,
rescue capability,
Space debris,
Space tourism,
spacesuits, 15
Cruise, Tom, 20
Cruz, Ted (senator, USA), 151
customary international law: chemical weapons,
deep seabed mining, 176
duty to rescue, 43
environmental protection,
hard law, 78
international law, source of, 220
jus cogens rules, 282
kinetic ASAT weapons testing, 282
multilateral negotiations, 183
persistent objectors, 340
precautionary principle,
proportionality, 357
silence as acquiescence, 340
soft law, relationship to,
Space mining, 138,
state responsibility, 99,
Vienna Convention (1969), 24
DART (NASA), 167,
Deep Impact (comet probe, NASA), 208
Defence Research and Development Organisation (India), 321
Delta IV (USA), 126
De Man, Philip,
Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO, DARPA), 294
Desautels, Eric, 343
Dimorphos (asteroid), 167,
Disasters Charter, 172
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART, NASA), 167,
Downer, Alexander (Foreign Minister, Australia), 311
Draft Articles on State Responsibility (2001),
duty to rescue; see also under Rescue Agreement (1968); see also under Liability Convention (1972); see also under Outer Space Treaty (1967)
Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic (2011), 225
commercial spacecraft, 28
Cospas-Sarsat, 365
non-governmental passengers, 31
planetary defence,
regional and bilateral treaties, 224
UN Charter, 43
universal applicability, 37
Edgeworth–Kuiper Belt (Kuiper Belt),
environmental impacts: aluminium from satellite demise, 64
aluminium from solid fuel rockets, 67
anthropogenic atmospheric injection modeling,
commercial travel, volume, 38
deorbiting space objects,
mesospheric cloud formation, ,
ozone layer depletion, 67
satellite demise, 64
Space debris, 41
European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), 364
FAA, 14,
FCC: categorical exclusion, claim of, 110
collision risk underestimation, 61
de facto regulator of LEO,
orbital shell assignment, 69
SpaceX, 60
Viasat, Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission,
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 14,
Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, 13
Finland, 324
flag-of-convenience states: Luxembourg, 4
maritime law, 171
Rwanda, 172
Space mining, , 168,
suppression of, 98
Forden, Geoffrey,
G77 states, 138
Galileo (EU GPS system), 74
General Atomics, 294
Geneva Conventions (1949), 355
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle,
Glassmeier, Karl-Heinz,
Global Times,
Gray, Christine, 350
Guiding Principles Applicable to Unilateral Declarations (UN, International Law Commission, 2006), 336
Hagle, Sharon and Mark, 2
Hague Conventions, The (1907), 355
Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group, The, 157
Hayabusa-1 probe (Japan), 132
Hirano, Yozo (filmmaker), 20
Hitchens, Theresa, 334
Hobe, Stephan, 35
Huang Zhicheng, 331
Hurley, Douglas (astronaut, NASA), 158
Hyten, General John E., 267
IADC: ASAT tests, 277,
creation of, 265
deorbiting guidelines, 74,
kinetic ASAT ban, 279
law-making, 279
mega-constellations, 50
ODMSP influence, 317
Space debris mitigation guidelines,
India, , , ,
Indonesia, , ,
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (Canary Islands), 191
International Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean (2018), 163, 181
International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN),
International Astronautical Congress, 159
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), 70
International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (EU), 320
International Committee of the Red Cross, 358
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL Convention, 1992, 2001, 2003), 128
International Cospas-Sarsat Programme, 172,
International Court of Justice: Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996), 244
Case Concerning the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (1997), 243
Corfu Channel Case (1949),
environmental protection, 107
information sharing,
judicial decisions, 112
Nicaragua Case (1986), 338, ,
Nuclear Test Cases (1974), 279,
Oil Platforms Case, 347
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976), 79
international humanitarian law (jus in bello): Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions (1977),
distinction,
Geneva Conventions (1949), 355
military necessity,
proportionality, 357
proportionality and ASAT use,
proportionality, example of,
international law, astronomy: Antarctic Treaty (1959), 103
compliance,
customary international law, 106
Declaration of Legal Principles (COPOUS),
due regard, context,
due regard, duty of, 98, ,
due regard, ordinary meaning,
environmental impact assessments, 98,
exploration and use, , 102
exploration and use, context,
exploration and use, ordinary meaning,
International Court of Justice,
mega-constellations,
negotiation required,
precautionary principle (Rio Declaration (1992)), 98
Rio Declaration (1992),
Stockholm Declaration (1972), 106
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992),
West Ford Experiment (1961-63), ,
international law, satellite collisions: causation, 77,
disaster response, 83,
enforcement,
fault, determination of, 84
hard law,
indirect damage (knock-on collisions),
ISO standard, 81
liability, 87
liability and national courts, 89
national implementation of COPUOS guidelines, 81
negligence, determination of, 77
soft law, 78
Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines (COPUOS, 2007),
state recovery of compensation,
sustainability guidelines, 83
tort law, 89
Iridium 33 (satellite), 8
Isaacman, Jared,
Israel, , , 255
Israel, Brian, , 156
ISS: civilian control, 238
Italian Space Agency, 237
Itokawa (asteroid), 132
ITU: communication satellites, orbital assignments, 70
Constitution and Convention, 71
LEO regulatory role, 70
mega-constellations, 49
mega-constellations, milestone-based regulatory approach,
milestone-based regulatory approach, problems, ,
Radio Regulations,
Radiocommunication Bureau,
Rules of Procedure,
Ivanov, Sergei (deputy prime minister, Russia), 311
Ivory Coast, 118
Jakhu, Ram,
Japan: Artemis Accords signatory, 159
Hayabusa-1 probe,
Hayabusa-2 probe, , 166
Japanese Space Agency,
response to 2007 China ASAT test, 310
response to 2021 Russia ASAT test, 329
Space mining, 152
Japanese Space Agency,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA), 198
Johndroe, Gordon (NSC spokesperson),
Johnson, Christopher, 296
Kamo’oalewa (asteroid),
Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT, Norway), , 366
Koplow, David, 353
Korolev, Sergei Pavlovich, 145
Kosmos 954 (Russia), , 88
Laliberté, Guy, 44
Law of Treaties, The (McNair, 1986), 106
LEO; see also mega-constellations
automated collision avoidance, 8
debris-generating events, 8
inter-operator communications, 55,
Kessler–Cour-Palais Syndrome,
satellites prior to 2019, 48
LeoLabs, 90
Liability Convention (1972): absolute liability,
damage on return, 36
enforcement,
fault, 84
indirect damage (knock-on collisions),
planetary defence, 247
rocket bodies, 121
space object, 36
state liability, 87
suborbital flights,
Liemer, Ross,
Liman, Doug, 20
Liu Jianchao (Foreign Ministry, China), 312
Liu Jing, 330
Lockheed Martin, 294
Lunar Gateway (NASA), 166
Lunar Outpost, 162
Maezawa, Yusaku,
Marsden, Brian,
Marvel Space Communications, 49,
Masten Space Systems, 162
mega-constellations; see also international law, satellite collisions; see also ITU; see also international law, astronomy; see also OneWeb, see also Starlink
Amazon/Kuiper, 49,
Astra Space, 49
automated collision avoidance,
collision risks, ,
congestion/collision mitigation, 62
deorbiting satellites,
deorbiting satellites, safety, 63
differential access, 51
environmental effects of rocket launches,
environmental effects of satellite demise, 64
fragmentation events,
Guo Wang/StarNet, 49,
ITU regulatory approach, 72
Kepler Communications, 49
market change, 51
Marvel Space Communications, 49,
meteoroid collisions,
military use,
new services, 51
OneWeb, 49,
orbital shell assignment, 70
radio astronomy, interference with,
satellites, brightness mitigation, 47,
satellites, light pollution, , 47
Space debris, 51
SpaceX, collision assessments, 60
user base, 50
Viasat, Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission,
mesopause, 12
Minor Planet Center (International Astronomical Union), 219
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987), 127
Nair, Madhavan (Indian Space Research Organization),
NASA; see also Artemis Accords
Catalina Sky Survey, 190
cometary impact scenario, 210
Commercial Crew Program, 20
Deep Impact, 208
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), 167, ,
IADC membership, 79
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 198
Lunar Gateway, 166
lunar lander contract, 16
lunar regolith purchase, , , 172
Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission (NEOSM), 192
NEOWISE,
Pan-STARRS Project, 190
SpaceX, collision avoidance co-ordination,
US ASAT test (1985), objections to, 265
Wolf Amendment (2011), 359
National Environmental Policy Act (USA),
National Transportation Safety Board (USA), 128
Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite (NEOSSat, Canada), 250
Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission (NEOSM, NASA), 192
NED: advantages of use, 203
challenges to use, 203
claim of necessity, 226
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (1996), 226,
deflection method, 202
NEO rendezvous, 202
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, 230
Oberth effect, 203
Outer Space Treaty (1967), 226
Space-based nuclear weapons tests, 230
Space-based testing moratorium,
UN Security Council authorisation, 226
Nelson, Bill (NASA Administrator), 326
NEOWISE (comet),
NEOWISE (NASA satellite),
Netherlands, 324
Nicaragua Case, 338, ,
North Atlantic Council (NATO), 327
Novel Orbital and Moon Manufacturing, Materials and Mass-Efficient Design (NOM4D, DARPA), , 293, 296, 298
Nuclear Test Cases, 279,
Obama, Barack (president, USA), 151
Oberth effect, 203
Office for Outer Space Affairs, 93
Oil Platforms Case, 347
OneWeb: collision avoidance, 60
collision risks, 75
environmental impact statements, 99
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, use of,
Greg Wyler (CEO),
Soyuz rocket, use of,
Ukrainian war, 360
Oort Cloud, 207
Operation Burnt Frost, 64
Outer Space Institute, 157
Outer Space Treaty (1967): collision avoidance,
duty of due regard, 105,
duty to rescue, 21
duty to rescue, celestial bodies, 42
duty to rescue, commercial spacecraft, 28
duty to rescue, non-governmental passengers, 33
exploration and use, , 146,
geographic scope of rescue, 23
information sharing,
liability, Space tourism, 34
mega-constellations, 50
NEDs,
non-state actors, 246
orbital shells, de facto use,
origins,
principles,
Space mining, 1,
Space security, 261,
subsequent practice, 153
unilateral action against NEO, 238
Pan-STARRS Project, 190
Parly, Florence (defence minister, France), 327
PDV Mk-II (India), 283
pellet ring,
Pence, Karen, 158
Pence, Mike (vice president, USA), 158
Peresild, Yulia, 20
Planet Labs, 48
planetary defence; see also NED; see also Space Mission Planning Advisory Group (SMPAG)
airbursts, 187
anthropogenic environmental degradation, 192
asteroid deflection, 196
Asteroid Terrestrial-Impact Last Alert System (ATLAS),
Catalina Sky Survey, 190
circumstances precluding wrongfulness, 241
circumstances precluding wrongfulness, consent,
circumstances precluding wrongfulness, distress,
circumstances precluding wrongfulness, necessity,
collective Space agency action, 234
cometary impact scenario, NASA,
comets,
dark asteroids, 192
decision-making matrix, 234
Deep Impact (NASA), 208
defence capability, development of, 250
direction of approach,
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART, NASA), , 211
duty to rescue, international law,
Edgeworth–Kuiper Belt (Kuiper Belt),
fault-based liability, 249
gravity tractors,
impact timescales,
information sharing, 211
information sharing, international law,
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (Canary Islands), 191
International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN),
international cooperation, 211
kinetic impactors,
liability, 247
liability and false alarms,
mass drivers,
minimum orbital intersection distance (MOID), 192,
mission-ready assets,
multilateral assistance,
Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission (NEOSM, NASA), 192
NEO identification, 190
NEOWISE (NASA), 191
NGO liability, 249
Oort Cloud,
Pan-STARRS Project, 190
precautionary defence, mission restriction,
precautionary defence, NEO deflection, 255
pre-emptive self-defence,
risk assessment, 188, ,
Rosetta/Philae (probe/lander), 208,
safe harbours, 256
Shoemaker–Levy 9 (comet),
state responsibility, 221
tabletop exercise (2017), NED use, 217,
tabletop exercise (2019), deflection mission, , 217
tabletop exercise (2021), impact emergency,
Tunguska event, 188
UN Security Council,
unilateral action, 211
unilateral action and military involvement,
unilateral action, international law,
Vera C. Rubin Observatory (Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, Chile), 191
waiver of liability (UN Security Council), 236
Yarkovsky effect, 195
PPWT (2014),
precautionary principle (Rio Declaration [1992]): environmental degradation, 107
environmental impact assessments, ,
Space mining, 168,
Privateer, 90
Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (1925), 300
R-7 (Russia), 259
RadarSat-2 (Canada), 352
radio astronomy, , 297
Raju, Nivedita, 331
Reddy, G. Satheesh, 321
Redstone (USA), 259
Registration Convention (1974), 37
Remote Sensing Space Systems Regulations (Canada, 2007), 317
Rescue Agreement (1968): alighted, interpretation of, 22
cost reimbursement, 37
duty to rescue, celestial bodies, 42
duty to rescue, commercial spacecraft,
duty to rescue, non-governmental passengers,
duty to rescue, travaux préparatoires,
geographic scope of rescue, 22
travaux préparatoires, 28
right of self-defence: ASAT use on civilian satellite, 348
ASAT use on dual-use satellite, 348
ASAT use on military satellite,
necessity and proportionality,
necessity and proportionality, debris creation,
necessity and proportionality, dual-use satellites, , 368
necessity and proportionality, military satellites,
Space debris, 354
UN Charter and ASAT weapons,
Rio Declaration (1992), , 181
rocket bodies: casualty risk assessment, 120,
casualty risk assessment, future risk, , 124
controlled re-entry, 114
controlled re-entry, switch to, 124
environmental risks, 62,
generic term, 114
Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities (2018),
Liability Convention (1972), 121
liability risk, 121
light pollution, ,
low-risk, high-consequence events,
negotiation before disaster,
Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices (ODMSP, USA),
re-entry safety risks, 62
Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines (2010),
SpaceX, best practices, 62
tragedy of the commons, prevention of,
uncontrolled re-entry, casualty expectations,
uncontrolled re-entry, surface impacts, , 119
Rogers, A.P.V.,
ROSCOSMOS: IADC membership, 79, 265
property rights, , 160
Russia (2021) ASAT test, 281
Space debris, 281,
Space tourism, 17,
Ukrainian war,
Rubio, Marco (senator, USA), 151
Russia; see also ISS; see also Soyuz (Russia); see also ROSCOSMOS
ASAT tests (1968-1982), 262
bilateral Russia/US ASAT test ban proposal, 277
Chelyabinsk event, , 211
Cospas–Sarsat rescue programme, 364
General Requirements on Space Systems for the Mitigation of Human-Produced Near-Earth Space Pollution (2008), 317
knock-on collision, 77
Kosmos 954 impact, , 88
Luna-16 probe, 145
NED testing, 231
Outer Space Treaty, travaux préparatoires, 148
Pikialasorsuaq (North Water Polynya), 64
PPWT (2014),
response to 2007 China ASAT test, 311
response to 2019 India ASAT test, 323
Salyut-7 Space station, 118
satellite–debris collision, 266
Tunguska event,
West Ford Experiment, reaction to, 103
Working Group on Space Resources, 179
Russia–China International Lunar Research Station, 359
Ryugu (asteroid), , 166
Salyut-7 Space station, 118
Saraswat, Vijay Kumar, 321
SC-19 (China), 283
Scaled Composites, 12
Schmitt, Michael, 358
Schulz, Leonard,
Sea Launch project, 64
Shanahan, Patrick (Defense Secretary, USA), 323
Shijian-21 (spacecraft, China), 314
Shipenko, Klim, 20
Shoemaker–Levy 9 (comet),
SiriusXM, 48
South Korea, 330
Space; see also Space tourism; see also environmental impacts; see also LEO; see also GEO (Geosynchronous Orbit); see also rocket bodies; see also astronomy; see also Space mining; see also planetary defence; see also Space security; see also IADC; see also ISS; see also Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS); see also Space debris; see also anti-satellite weapons
definition of boundary,
determining astronaut title,
freedom of exploration and use, 305
governance breakdown, 359
grand challenges, 7
LEO denial of safe access,
ownership,
rules of the road,
satellite companies, national registration, 71
satellite–satellite collision, 8,
spacefaring states,
sustainable development, 9
traffic management, 58
Ukrainian war,
Space debris; see also Kessler–Cour-Palais Syndrome
cis-lunar Space,
debris-generating events, 8,
gas drag clearance, 53
mega-constellations, 52
meteoroid collisions,
missile defence systems and debris generation, 273, ,
national implementation of UN guidelines,
rocket bodies, 53
tracked debris, 52
tragedy of the commons, 7
Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines (COPUOS, 2007, 2010), , 121
Space Force (USA), 4, ,
Space mining; see also Space mining, US approach
accidents, 1
asteroid mining,
asteroid trajectory change, 167
asteroids, scientific interest,
China–Russia joint mission (Kamo’oalewa asteroid),
debris streams,
deep seabed mining as example, 176
duty to consult, 142
exploration and use, 146
flag-of-convenience states, 172
freedoms and restrictions, 180
invasive-species protection,
light pollution, 167
low-risk, high-consequence events, 167
lunar mining,
lunar orbits,
military resource use, 180
mining, duty of due regard, , 181
mining, duty to consult,
mining, non-state actors, 141
mining, ordinary meaning,
Moon Agreement (1979), ,
national policy, , 156
planetary defence, 205
precautionary principle, 181
risks, 136
scientific knowledge, potential loss, 164
subsequent agreement,
travaux préparatoires, 147
treaty negotiations,
Working Group on Space Resources, , 183
Space mining, US approach: China as counter-balance, 172
Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (2015), ,
de facto regulatory regime,
global commons, rejection of,
NewSpace, 152
obligations erga omnes,
power imbalance,
property rights, 151
regulatory flight,
Space companies, US concentration, 168
Space Mission Planning Advisory Group (SMPAG): Ad-Hoc Working Group on Legal Issues, 211
creation of, 211
DART mission, 211
non-state actors, 255
potential sidelining in emergency, 235
Space security; see also cis-lunar Space
ASAT ban,
ASAT limitation proposals, 276
bilateral Russia–US ASAT test ban proposal, 277
China ASAT test (2007), 265
IADC, 265
increased collision risk, 270, ,
India ASAT test (2019), 267
Kessler–Cour-Palais Syndrome,
Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963), 261
military Space activity, historical,
missile defence systems, 283
missile defence systems and debris generation, 273, ,
missile defence systems, permitted use,
Outer Space Treaty (1967), 261
PPWT (2014),
Russia ASAT test (2021), 270,
spacecraft approach speeds, 279
Starfish Prime,
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement (SALT 1, 1972), 261
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 264
UN General Assembly resolutions, 276
US ASAT test (1985), 265
US ASAT test (2008), 267
US-Soviet Orbital Debris Working Group, 265
Space tourism; see also duty to rescue
extinction tourism,
international law, 11
liability,
liability regime, determination of,
orbital tourism,
safety,
Space debris, 11
suborbital tourism, ,
SpaceIL (Israel), , 255
SpaceShipOne (Virgin Galactic), 12
SpaceShipTwo (Virgin Galactic): altitude limit, 12, 14
carrying capacity, 12
Chicago Convention,
environmental impacts, , 67
FAA registration,
launch, 12
liability regimes, 35
SpaceX; see also Starlink; see also Crew Dragon (SpaceX); see also Falcon 9 (SpaceX)
collision assessments, 60
control of orbits, 4
lunar lander contract, 16
movement of operations, 4
NASA contracts, 4,
NASA, collision avoidance coordination,
orbital tourism, ,
rocket body best practices, 62
Space Force contracts, 4,
Space tourism, 11
Tesla automobile launch, 165
Starfish Prime (US NED test), 232
Starlink: aluminium from satellite demise, 64
automated collision avoidance,
brightness mitigation,
Chinese collision avoidance maneuver,
collision risks,
deorbiting satellites, 58
deployment,
environmental impact assessments, ,
ESA collision avoidance maneuver,
FCC licence, 110
orbital congestion,
Ukrainian war, 367
Statute of the International Court of Justice, 112
Stockholm Declaration (1972), 107
Stoltenberg, Jens (NATO Secretary-General),
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement (SALT 1, 1972), 261
Suffredini, Michael, 17
Sundahl, Mark,
Swift Tutle (comet), 248
tardigrades (water bears), ,
thermosphere, 12
Thompson, General David (Vice-Chief of Space Operations, US Space Force),
Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities (UN, 2012),
Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT [2014]),
Truman Proclamation (1945), 170
Tunguska event,
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992),
UN General Assembly resolutions: Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (1962 [XVIII]), , 143, 280
No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, 276
Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS), 276
resolution 110 (II), 143
resolution 1721 (XVI),
resolution 1884 (XVIII), 143
resolution 1962 (XVIII),
resolution 68/75, 211
resolution 76/231,
UN Space treaties; see Outer Space Treaty (1967); see Liability Convention (1972); see Moon Agreement (1979); see Rescue Agreement (1968); see Registration Convention (1974)
United Arab Emirates (UAE), 159
United States; see also NASA; see also ISS; see also Blue Origin; see also SpaceX; see also FCC; see also Virgin Galactic
Cislunar Highway Patrol Satellite (CHPS, USA), , 298
Counter Communications System (CCS), 343
Defense Deep Space Sentinel (D2S2, USA), , 298
Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations’ (DRACO, DARPA), 294
FAA, 14,
military Space activity, 258
response to 2007 China ASAT test,
response to 2019 India ASAT test, 322
response to 2021 Russia ASAT test, 326
Space Force, 4, ,
Space security advocacy,
United States Air Force Research Laboratory,
Wolf Amendment (2011), 359
United States Air Force Research Laboratory,
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 79
V-2 (Germany),
V-2 (US), 259
Van Allen radiation belts, 231,
Vance, Cyrus (Secretary of State, USA), 151
Vera C. Rubin Observatory (Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, Chile), 191
Vienna Convention (1969): astronomy, 98,
Outer Space Treaty (1967),
Rescue Agreement (1968), ,
subsequent agreement/practice, 144
subsequent practice, 153,
travaux préparatoires, 25
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985), 127
West Ford Experiment (USA, 1961-63), , , 370
West, Jessica, 294
WhiteKnightTwo (Virgin Galactic),
Wyler, Greg, 74
Zhao Lijian, 330
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