1.1. Artificial intelligence

AI is a “wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence” (Built In, n.d.). With AI, machines can build on human capabilities and perform tasks such as problem-solving, decision-making, and learning from data (Built In, n.d.).

1.2. Digital colonialism

Digital colonialism is “the decentralised extraction and control of data from citizens with or without their explicit consent through communication networks developed and owned by Western tech companies” (Marker et al., Reference Marker2019). It has also been referred to as “the use of digital technology for political, economic, and social domination of another nation or territory” (Longreads, 2021).

1.3. Neocolonialism

Neocolonialism can be described as “the subtle propagation of socio-economic and political activity by former colonial rulers aimed at reinforcing capitalism, neo-liberal globalization, and cultural subjugation of their former colonies” (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2021).

1.4. Data exploitation

Data exploitation is the illegal use of an individual’s private data (ScienceDirect Topics, 2023).

2.1 Manifestations of digital colonialism

One way digital colonialism manifests in Africa is through the control and ownership of critical digital infrastructure by foreign entities (Coleman, Reference Coleman2019). This can be seen with the dominance of foreign digital platforms and services in African markets, with African consumers relying heavily on these foreign platforms. By controlling the digital ecosystem, foreign entities or big technology corporations gain direct power over the continent’s political, economic, social, and cultural domains (Kwet, Reference Kwet2018). Although digital infrastructures are essential for developing the continent’s digital landscape when controlled by external actors, they can be easily exploited and used for “imperial control at the architecture level of the digital ecosystem” (Kwet, Reference Kwet2018) and can affect local businesses and innovation (Kwet, Reference Kwet2018).

Another manifestation of digital colonialism is the unequal data flow. The monopoly of foreign multinational tech companies on the continent allows them free reign to collect vast amounts of data from African users through their platforms and services (African Business, 2023). This means that data from digital platforms and services, social media, search engines, and mobile applications—often requiring users to provide personal information and preferences—are extracted, collected, and stored. For instance, by providing free access to the internet or subsidised data plans for developing economies, Facebook’s Free Basics program allows it to “harvest huge amounts of metadata about users” (Solon, Reference Solon2017) and their online activities while subjecting the user to consumption of mostly western content and preferences (Solon, Reference Solon2017). These data often leave the continent, where they are monetised without significant benefit to Africa, while further increasing the economic imbalances. The Cambridge Analytica (CA) Scandal (Cadwalladr and Graham-Harrison, Reference Cadwalladr and Graham-Harrison2018), where users’ data from Facebook were used for political profiling and election targeting also demonstrates how data can be misused for economic and political benefits.

2.2 Manifestations through the use of AI

AI represents a powerful and transformative technology with the potential to drive innovation and development across various sectors (Gruetzemacher and Whittlestone, Reference Gruetzemacher and Whittlestone2022). In the context of Africa, AI is increasingly being integrated into industries and institutions (Ade-Ibijola and Okonkwo, Reference Ade-Ibijola, Okonkwo, Eke, Wakunuma and Akintoye2023). Its problem-solving, data analysis, and automation capabilities make it a potent tool for driving innovation and development in Africa and a signal towards more technologically advanced solutions on the continent.

Just as physical spaces can be used as sites of extraction and exploitation, digital spaces can also be used similarly; as sites of digital-territorial coloniality (Mohamed et al., Reference Mohamed, Png and Isaac2020). AI coloniality can therefore be seen in the form of “state-of-the-art algorithms” and “AI solutions” to social problems, which leave Africa dependent on Western infrastructure while local products are neglected (Birhane, Reference Birhane, Sullivan and Wilson2020).

Among the manifestations of digital colonialism through the use of AI is algorithmic oppression. Algorithmic oppression includes the integration of biases embedded in AI codes, allowing for instances of some societal harm evidenced in AI predictive systems (Mohamed et al., Reference Mohamed, Png and Isaac2020; Birhane, Reference Birhane, Sullivan and Wilson2020). The accuracy of these tools can be questioned, especially considering that they are dealing with datasets they were not trained on. For instance, when facial recognition systems fail to detect Black faces and perpetuate gender stereotypes (Buolamwini and Gebru, Reference Buolamwini and Gebru2018), hate speech detection algorithms identify African languages as toxic (Sap et al., Reference Sap, Card, Gabriel, Choi and Smith2019), thereby entrenching the historical injustice of colonialism in AI tools and amplifying social biases.

In addition, there is algorithmic exploitation when powerful foreign actors use algorithmic tools to take advantage—exert control, extract value, and maintain dominance—of a less powerful people, region, or community through unfair or unethical means for the asymmetrical benefit of the actors in the digital space (Gomberg-Muñoz, Reference Gomberg-Muñoz2018). This is well illustrated in African cities with ride-hailing platforms like Uber. Although algorithms determine the pricing and driver allocation, such can lead to pricing disparities and driver exploitation, with drivers earning less in certain regions due to algorithmic pricing decisions. There have been such accusations on the continent that ride-hailing companies exploit drivers by imposing unfavourable terms and conditions, made possible through algorithmic control over the platform (Arubayi, Reference Arubayi2022).

In addition, there is outsourcing labour to the economically disadvantaged in the AI industry. Western industries take advantage of the absence of effective labour regulations and the economic inequalities on the continent to organise their production in ways and places that reduce manufacturing costs while enhancing corporate profit (APRI, 2022). Such is the reported case of Sama (Sama AI Platform, n.d.), an AI data annotation platform based in California that outsources for big techs like Facebook. Reports state that it had around 200 Kenyans working as content moderators, watching graphic footage and removing illegal content while being some of the company’s lowest-paid employees in the world, with some earning as little as $1.50 an hour (Augustine, Reference Augustine2023). The situation has, however, been reviewed following the investigations and court actions (TIME, 2022). Furthermore, some content moderators for Open AI’s ChatGPT in Nairobi, Kenya, also decried the exploitative and psychological trauma of watching gruesome content and suffering low pay and abrupt dismissals (Rowe, Reference Rowe2023).

In the same vein, there is the practice of beta testing, where tech companies invest in various experiments to test early versions of software systems to identify issues in their usage in settings with real users. In the testing of predictive systems, these organisations, in clearly exploitative situations, use countries outside of their own as testing grounds (Beta Testing, 2023). It could also occur as a form of ethics dumping to marginalised and vulnerable populations or to low and middle-income countries in situations which often align “with the old fault lines of colonialism”(Schroeder et al., Reference Schroeder, Cook, Hirsch, Fenet and Muthuswamy2018). An example is the decision of CA to beta test and develop algorithmic tools for the 2017 Kenyan and 2015 Nigerian elections, with the intention to later deploy these tools in US and UK elections (Nyanbola, Reference Nyanbola2018).

Equally, there is the instance of algorithmic dispossession seen with Africa’s under-representation and side-lining in discussions related to growing the digital economy, therefore entrenching the centralisation of power among the digital colonisers (Thatcher et al., Reference Thatcher, O’Sullivan and Mahmoudi2016). This continues to leave Africa as an economic dependent on the country that supplies most of its AI software (Pathways for Prosperity Commission, 2018). The import of this is seen in reviewing the global landscape of AI ethics guidelines (Global Landscape of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Guideline, Reference Jobin, Lenca and Vayena2019; Jobin et al., Reference Jobin, Lenca and Vayena2019), revealing the power imbalance and under-representation of Africa and other economically developing regions in the AI ethics debate. This shows that the continent’s participation in global policymaking does not reflect its current digital dynamism, with millions becoming connected, e-commerce growing rapidly, and new solutions being created. Therefore, as Africa’s digital dynamism grows, its participation in global digital policy must increase (Diplo Resource, 2022).

2.3 Factors that aid the manifestations of digital colonialism

Digital colonialism manifests in several ways across the continent. Some of the factors that aid its manifestations in Africa are discussed below.

First, there is a lack of adequate digital infrastructure on the continent. Studies (SAIIA, 2023) show that compared to some other regions, the state of technological development in Africa is still nascent, and this has encouraged many African nations to rely heavily on foreign technology and expertise for their digital infrastructure. This digital dependence makes Africa vulnerable to external influence and limits the ability to set a digital agenda. For instance, most of the “technology, equipment, and systems that link the African people and their communities with their data, products, and services” are owned by Western technology companies (Kwet, Reference Kwet2019a). Consequently, these “external actors could thus wield significant control over data, platforms, and technologies, leaving African nations vulnerable to manipulation, exploitation, and digital colonialism” (SAIIA, 2023).

Second, there is a lack of comprehensive and up to date regulatory frameworks for the digital sector in many African countries. The absence of robust national frameworks allows external entities to exploit regulatory gaps and exert control. Furthermore, as the reliance on data expanded in the digital age, “extensive data protection laws and regulations also emerged to ensure ethical use of that data” (Quach et al., Reference Quach, Thaichon, Martin, Weaven and Palmatier2022). However, of the 54 countries on the African continent (Worldometer, n.d.), only 36 countries currently have data protection laws (Privacy Lens, 2023).

In addition, while some African countries have non-efficient regulatory bodies, others have no regulatory body whatsoever. Specifically, out of the 36 African countries with data protection laws, only 26 have data protection authorities (Privacy Lens, 2023).

Furthermore, the economic disparity, lack of necessary digital skills, and inadequate public knowledge limit the control of the African nation (CSEA Africa, 2023) while empowering external actors to use their power and resources to exploit untapped data on the continent.

3.1 The role of big technology companies

Multinational tech corporations, often called Big Tech, play a significant role in Africa’s digital landscape (AFD, n.d.). They are involved in various aspects of technology, including internet services, cloud computing, and digital platforms. Their influence has several implications for the continent.

Big Tech companies have invested in expanding internet access in Africa, which has helped improve connectivity in underserved areas. However, their involvement also means they hold substantial power over digital access and infrastructure. Through online behavioural tracking technology, the activities of web and app users on the internet can be easily monitored (Arora and Arora, Reference Arora and Arora2018), and through their data on multiple platforms, a digital profile can be created to produce content personalised to each user (van Rijmenam, Reference van Rijmenam2013). One can therefore state that big techs are able to build dominance over critical functions in the tech ecosystem; through “surveillance in the form of Big Data,” “exercise of control over the flow of information (such as the distribution of news and streaming services), social activities (like social networking and cultural exchange), and a plethora of other political, social, and economic and military functions mediated by their technologies” (Kwet, Reference Kwet2019b).

Another major implication of Big Tech’s presence on the African continent is the control and monetisation of data (Elmi, Reference Elmi2020). Often driven by the intent to make profits, Big Tech corporations use “proprietary software, corporate clouds, and centralised Internet services to spy on users, process their data, and spit back manufactured services to subjects of their data fiefdoms” (Kwet, Reference Kwet2019b). As a continent with more than 1.25 billion people (World Atlas, 2018), the African market represents a data repository for Western tech companies. The vast amounts of data processed and collected from African users are usually exported out of the continent and sold to data brokers, who collect the data with the aim of conducting targeted advertising or storing the data for predictive analytics (Melendez and Pasternack, Reference Melendez and Pasternack2019). Now, advertisers no longer must make assumptions about consumers’ behaviour (Reczek et al., Reference Reczek, Summers and Smith2016) and can target consumers with extreme precision based on hyper-personalised data (Matsakis, Reference Matsakis2018). All these raise concerns about the privacy rights of users, data security, and data ownership.

Furthermore, the dominance of big tech platforms influences technology adoption and consumer behaviour on the continent. Their dominance drives African businesses and individuals to rely heavily on foreign-owned platforms while stifling local innovation and entrepreneurship. In this way, tech companies are able to extract user data from different sources. For instance, Google, through its many tools, Google Search, Google Maps, Location Services, and Google Mail, is able to collect data from users all over, while African and other developing regions are unable to develop products to compete with these foreign corporations (Matsakis, Reference Matsakis2018; Kwet, Reference Kwet2019b).

In summary, the role of Big Tech companies in Africa’s digital landscape is significant and multifaceted. Although they contribute to improving connectivity and access, their influence on data, privacy, and technology adoption raises important questions about digital sovereignty and the need for an African agency to shape the continent’s digital future. What gives the highlighted consequences of big tech true power or dominance is that the extraction of data on the continent involves countries, many of whom have “limited infrastructures, limited data protection laws, and limited competition, combined with social, political, and economic power imbalances and decades of resource pillaging” (Coleman, Reference Coleman2019).

3.2 Implications of data exploitation on the future development of African economies

The implications of data exploitation on the future development of African economies are multifaceted. One key concern revolves around the economic value generated from users’ data. Companies like “Facebook and Google use these data as a means of selling access to individuals to third-party corporations” (Wagner, Reference Wagner2018). As external entities monetise these data, profits often flow out of Africa, contributing to a digital wealth transfer that exacerbates economic imbalances within the continent.

In addition to converting users’ data to usable information and selling for immense profit (Coleman, Reference Coleman2019), these data can also be used to infer personal information about users without the users directly giving out the information (Ng and Kent, Reference Ng and Kent2018). This creeps into a person’s private life and goes against the basic tenets of the users’ right to privacy. The implication of this on an entire continent is far-reaching as one cannot then imagine the exploits of big techs like Google with access to data of over 1.17 billion global users (Richter, Reference Richter2013).

Moreover, when Africa relies heavily on international technology companies for digital infrastructure and services, the risk of economic reliance on these external actors becomes significant (Solomon and van Klyton, Reference Solomon and van Klyton2020). Decisions affecting local communities can be tied to the interests of foreign entities, potentially influencing and manipulating the economic destiny of African nations. For instance, Huawei’s role in Kenya’s 4G network installation (Huawei, 2018), while offering short-term benefits, raises long-term concerns about foreign influence (Belt and Road Portal, n.d.).

Data exploitation can also stifle local innovation and entrepreneurship. When foreign entities dominate digital markets and collect extensive data, local businesses face barriers to entry and competition. Limited opportunities hinder the growth of home-grown technology companies, as foreign actors possess resources, expertise, and networks that can be challenging to match. This dominance can create an uneven playing field, discouraging fair competition, and hindering the development of a vibrant technology ecosystem.

The presence and control of external actors in Africa’s digital space may challenge national sovereignty and regional decision-making. Data sovereignty issues (Akinyetun, Reference Akinyetun2023) arise when external entities control sensitive data, necessitating the implementation of laws to restrict data transfer in some African countries. Although it is conceded that mandatory localisation of data does not necessarily imply benefits, it presents its own challenges as an extension of the government’s surveillance capabilities. However, the data transfer restriction can also be used as an instrument to enhance data sovereignty protection. With reference to data localisation, one finds that data transfer is restricted in countries like South Africa and Kenya, and allowed only under specific circumstances. For instance, data collected is not to be transferred outside Kenya without proof that the jurisdiction to which the data are to be transferred has adequate data protection safeguards or that the data subject’s consent has been obtained (One Trust Data Guidance, 2024).

In summary, the implications of data exploitation on Africa’s future development encompass economic imbalances, potential reliance on external actors, stifling of local innovation, and challenges to national sovereignty. These multifaceted consequences highlight the need for a comprehensive and strategic approach to navigate the evolving digital landscape in Africa.

4.1 Overview of some African initiatives and responses

In attempts to consolidate the digital sovereignty efforts in Africa, some countries have recognised the importance of asserting ownership and agency in the digital sphere, and are undertaking some initiatives and responses to shape their digital future.

Nigeria has taken a significant step in its economic evolution with the launch of its Digital Economy Policy and Strategy (Nigerian Economic Summit Group, n.d.). This strategic framework is designed to harness the power of digital technologies to diversify the nation’s economy. It centres its focus on critical areas such as digital skills development, the promotion of e-commerce, and the creation of a supportive regulatory environment (Nigerian Economic Summit Group, n.d.).

Across the continent, Kenya has set a precedent with its Huduma platform (Huduma Kenya, n.d.), which reduces bureaucratic obstacles, enhances administrative efficiency, and allows easy access to governmental services for the citizens (JKUAT Repository Home, n.d.).

In South Africa, there is the data protection law, the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA) (POPIA, n.d.) which protects the individuals’ privacy rights of citizens.

Meanwhile, Rwanda’s dedication to fostering an innovation ecosystem is evident through initiatives like the Kigali Innovation City (n.d.) and the Rwanda Coding Academy (n.d.). These efforts are instrumental in cultivating a skilled tech workforce and driving the growth of the digital sector.

On a continental scale, the African Union has launched a Digital Transformation Strategy (African Union, n.d.), signalling a collective commitment to accelerate Africa’s digital evolution. This strategy encompasses endeavours to harmonise digital policies across African nations and promote the development of crucial digital infrastructure (African Union, n.d.).

These examples demonstrate that African nations and organisations are actively working to assert their agency in the digital sphere. By implementing policies, fostering innovation, and investing in digital infrastructure, they aim to shape their own digital futures and maximise the benefits of the digital age for their citizens and economies.

4.2 Towards cultivating local ownership in shaping Africa’s future

The preceding sections of this article have highlighted the multifaceted implications of external actors exerting control over Africa’s digital infrastructure. From economic dependency to concerns over sovereignty and cultural homogenisation, it is evident that the stakes are high regarding Africa’s digital future. In light of these challenges, this section emphasises the imperative of African ownership in shaping the continent’s digital destiny.

5.1. Recommendations

Reducing digital colonialism in Africa and fostering a decolonised digital future demands a comprehensive strategy that spans regulatory, educational, and economic dimensions.