¹ In Brazil and Mexico between 1940 and 1950, population in cities of 100,000 or more grew at average annual rates of 5 and 6.7% respectively. During the 1950's, Santo Domingo grew 7.3% yearly; Panama City expanded at a rate of 7.9%. (United Nations Compendium of Social Statistics, 1963, Series K, No. 2, Table 7.) In the 1950's and early 1960's, Bogota's population rose an average of 6.8% a year; Cali's increased at 6.3%. Schultz, Paul T., Population and Labor Force Projections for Colombia, 1964-1974, mimeo. (Santa Monica, California, RAND, July 10, 1967), 12Google Scholar. Between 1941 and 1959 Caracas averaged a 7.4% annual growth. Herrick, Bruce, Urban Migration and Economic Development in Chile (Cambridge, Mass. 1965), 31Google Scholar. In some other parts of Asia and the Near East, rapid urban growth rivals that of Latin America. Korean cities have been growing rapidly since the 1950's: Seoul added 6.6% more people each year from 1960 to 1966. Turkey's population centers of 100,000 or more grew 6.7% a year from 1955 to 1960; Ankara averaged 6.8% annually from 1960 to 1965. (Estimated from figures in the United Nations Demographic Yearbook, 1962., 1963, 1967.) In South Asia, urban growth rates are generally lower. Delhi grew 5% a year from 1951 to 1961, but greater Bombay expanded at an annual rate of 3.9% during that period, and Calcutta's rate was 1.9%, reflecting in part the immense size already reached by these two giants. Davis, Kingsley in Turner, Roy, ed., India's Urban Future (Berkeley 1962), 10Google Scholar.

² For a more detailed discussion of the points in this section, see Nelson, Joan M., Migrants, Urban Poverty, and Instability in Developing Nations, Harvard Center for International Affairs, Occasional Paper No. 22 (Cambridge, Mass. 1969)Google Scholar.

³ Open unemployment rates of 5 to 10% appear repeatedly in surveys of major Latin American and Indian cities. Rates are higher among the unskilled, among young men seeking their first jobs, and in larger cities. Dziadek, Fred, Unemployment in the Less Developed Countries, AID Discussion Paper No. 16 (WashingtonGoogle Scholar, June Washington, June), Appendix A. Urban underemployment must greatly exceed unemployment, but it is extremely difficult to measure. A proxy indicator of the extent of underemployment is productivity in the tertiary or service sector, which drops as the sector is swollen by peddling, domestic service, and other marginal occupations. It has been calculated that in Latin America between 1950 and 1965, while productivity in agriculture grew at 1.8% a year and industry, mining, and utilities at 2.5% annually, productivity in the service sectors fell, suggesting “a level of underemployment equivalent to 10% of the national labor force.” Since services absorb much more urban than rural labor, the implied underemployment rate in the cities would far exceed ten percent. Chenery, Hollis B., Toward a More Effective Alliance for Progress, AID Discussion Paper No. 13 (Washington 1967)Google Scholar, 12.

⁴ See, for example, Barbara Ward, “The Uses of Prosperity,” Saturday Review, August 29, 1964, 191-92; Fannon, Franz, The Wretched of the Earth (London 1965), 103Google Scholar.

⁵ Peter Lupsha's interesting article, “On Theories of Urban Violence,” presented at the American Political Science Association meetings in 1968, lists many more theories of the causes of urban violence, including “conspiracy,” “riff-raff,” “teen-age rebellion,” and “police brutality.” However, the “recent migrant” and “frustration-aggression” theories discussed here are the two theories that appear most often in discussions of urban problems in the developing nations.

⁶ Hutchinson, Bertram, “The Migrant Population of Urban Brazil,” America Latina, vi (April-June 1963), 43, 46Google Scholar; Paul T. Schultz, 2.

⁷ Hauser, Philip, “The Social, Economic, and Technological Problems of Rapid Urbanization,” in Hoselitz, Bert F. and Moore, Wilbert E., eds., Industrialization and Society (The Hague 1963), 210–11Google Scholar; Soares, Glaucio and Hamblin, Robert L., “Socioeconomic Variables and Voting for the Radical Left, Chile, 1952,” American Political Science Review, LXI (December 1967), 1055Google Scholar. See also Olson, Mancur, “Economic Growth as a Destabilizing Force,” Journal of Economic History, xxiii (December 1963), 534Google Scholar.

⁸ Weiner, Myron, “Urbanization and Political Protest,” Civilisations, xvii (1967)Google Scholar.

⁹ Soares and Hamblin.

¹⁰ National Advisory Commission of Civil Disorders, Report, advance edition printed by The New York Times Company, 1968, 130–31; Lupsha, 7.

¹¹ Charles Tilly, “Urbanization and Political Disturbances in Nineteenth-Century France,” mimeo., presented to the annual meeting of the Society for French Historical Studies (Ann Arbor, April Ann Arbor, April), 7–8.

¹² Herrick, 53–103.

¹³ Hutchinson, 43–44.

¹⁴ Rao, V. K. R. V. and Desai, P. B., Greater Delhi: A Study in Urbanization 1940-nomic Surveys of Bombay City (Bombay 1963), 159Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Lakdawala, D. T., Work, Wages, and Well-being in an Indian Metropolis: Eco-1957 (New York 1965), 79Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Flinn, William L., “Rural-to-Urban Migration: A Colombian Case,” Research Publication No. 19 (U. of Wisconsin Land Tenure Center July), 10, 23Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Sewell, Granville, Squatter Settlements in Turkey, unpub. diss. (M.I.T. 1966), 304Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Wolfe, Marshal, “Some Implications of Recent Changes in Urban and Rural Settlement Patterns in Latin America,” paper presented at the U.N. World Population Conference (Belgrade, 1965), 25Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Gino Germani, “Inquiry into the Social Effects of Urbanization in a Working Class Sector of Greater Buenos Aires,” United Nations Economic and Social Council, E/CN.12/URB/10, December 1958, Table 10, p. 26; Herrick, 91, and ECLA, “Urbanization in Latin America: Results of a Field Survey of Living Conditions in an Urban Sector,” mimeo., E/CN.12.622, 1963, 17; Flinn, 27; Hutchinson, Table 12, p. 61.

²⁰ Mangin, William, “The Role of Regional Associations in the Adaption of Rural Migrants to Cities in Peru,” in Dwight Heath and Adams, Richard, eds., Contemporary Cultures and Societies of Latin America (New York, 1965), 319Google Scholar.

²¹ Herrick, 92.

²² ECLA, “Results of a Field Survey,” 16.

²³ Hutchinson, 67–68.

²⁴ Germani, 69, Table 37.

²⁵ Slighton, 38; Herrick, 84; Weiner, “Urbanization and Political Protest,” 6; Rao and Desai, 341, Table 16–1, and 383, Table 17–3; Dantwala, 481; Mukerjee, R. and Singh, B., Social Profiles of a Metropolis (Bombay 1961), 116Google Scholar; Farooq, G. M., The People of Karachi: Economic Characteristics, Monographs in the Economics of Development No. 15 (Karachi, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, July 1966), 19Google Scholar.

²⁶ Herrick, 79; Slighton, 37.

²⁷ Germani, 51, Table 29; Rao and Desai, 373, Tables 16–19; Herrick, 86–87, Tables 6–9; Lakdawala, 466, Table VI–37, Columns 7–8; Mukerjee and Singh, 88–89; R a o Desai, 223, Tables 12–15.

²⁸ Rao and Desai, 94–95, Tables 5–14, 5–15; Herrick, 94–95.

²⁹ Germani, 16.

³⁰ Pearse, Andrew, “Some Characteristics of Urbanization in the City of Rio de Janeiro,” in Hauser, Philip, ed., Urbanization in Latin America (UNESCO 1961), 196Google Scholar; Bonilla, Frank, “Rio's Favelas: The Rural Slum Within the City,” American University Field Staff Reports, East Coast South America Series, 8:3 (1961), 2Google Scholar.

³¹ Phillips, Doris, “Rural-to-Urban Migration in Iraq,” Economic Development and Cultural Change, vii (July 1959), 417Google Scholar; Flinn, 5, 37; Sewell, 109–110.

³² For example, see Scares, Glaucio, “The Political Sociology of Uneven Development in Brazil,” in Horowitz, Irving L., ed., Revolution in Brazil (New York 1964), 192, 195Google Scholar; also Davis, Kingsley and Golden, Hilda H., “Urbanization and the Development of Pre-industrial Areas,” Economic Development and Cultural Change, iii (1954), 19–20Google Scholar.

³³ Soares, 192.

³⁴ Almond, Gabriel and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture (Princeton 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Large-scale attitudinal surveys of factory workers and control groups were conducted by Alex Inkeles and his associates in Argentina, Chile, Israel, Nigeria, India, and Pakistan, as a basis for a study of the modernizing impact of factory experience on attitudes. I a m indebted to Professor Inkeles for permission to use his data.

³⁶ George F. Jones, “Urbanization an d Voting Behavior in Venezuela and Chile, 1958–1964,” typescript prepared at Stanford University, March 1967, 40–43, 69–72.

³⁷ Indian Institute of Public Opinion, “The Structure of Urban Public Opinion,” Public Opinion Surveys, xi (February 1966), 15–16Google Scholar.

³⁸ Weiner, Myron, “Violence and Politics in Calcutta,” The Journal of Asian Studies, xx (May 1961), 277Google Scholar.

³⁹ Tilly, Charles, “A Travers le Chaos des Vivantes Cités,” mimeo. paper presented to the Sixth Worth Congress of Sociology (Evian-les-Bains, September 1966), 17, 19Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Joan Nelson, 45–51.

⁴¹ Whiteford, Andrew, Two Cities of Latin America: A Comparative Description of Social Classes (New York 1964), 120Google Scholar.

⁴² Miller, S. Michael and Reisman, Frank, “The Working Class Sub-culture,” Social Problems, ix (Summer 1961), 92, 95–96Google Scholar; Gans, Herbert J., The Urban Villagers (New York 1962), 219–221, and passimGoogle Scholar.

⁴³ Sources for data in Table I: Sao Paulo: Bertram Hutchinson's survey data as reported in Miller, S. M., “Comparative Social Mobility,” Current Sociology, ix (1960), 69Google Scholar. Buenos Aires: Gino Germani, “La Mobilidad Social en la Argentina,” mimeo., Publicacion Interna No. 60, Instituto de Sociologia, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Poona: Sovani, N. V., “Occupational Mobility in Poona Between Three Generations,” in Urbanization and Urban India (Bombay 1966), 96Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Gino Germani, data developed for but not presented in the study on social mobility cited in footnote 43. I am indebted to Professor Germani for permission to use his data.

⁴⁵ See John Turner, Uncontrolled Urban Settlement: Problems and Policies, Working Paper No. 11 for the Inter-Regional Seminar on Development Policies and Planning in Relation to Urbanization, organized by the United Nations Bureau of Technical Assistance Operations and the Bureau of Social Affairs, October-November 1966, paper numbered 67–44032; Daniel Goldrich and others, “The Political Integration of Lower Class Urban Settlements,” mimeo., prepared for the American Political Science Association meetings, September 1966, 4; Flinn, 3–4; Mangin, William, “Latin American Squatter Settlements: A Problem and a Solution,” Latin American Research Review, ii (Summer 1967), 74–75Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Estimates place a fifth to a quarter of Lima's population in the early 1960's in squatter settlements; 16% of Rio as of 1964; 30% of Caracas in the late 1950's (despite construction of immense public housing projects absorbing an additional 18% of the city's population); and over a third of Mexico City. Morse, Richard M., “Recent Research on Latin American Urbanization,” Latin American Research Review, 1, 1965, 50Google Scholar; John Turner, 1. In Turkey, Granville Sewell estimates that squatters comprise a fifth of Istanbul, a third of Ankara, and a third of Adana. 71, 186, 193.

⁴⁷ Santiago and Lima: Goldrich. Caracas: CENDES print-out. Mexican working class: data drawn from taped data of interviews conducted by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba for their study of the “Civic Culture” in Mexico and other countries.

⁴⁸ Bonilla, 11; CENDES print-out; Goldrich, “Politics and the Pobladore,” Tables 1, 17, and “Demographic and Socio-economic Background, Social Mobility, and Expectations”; Germani, “Social and Political Consequences,” 389–90. Inkeles' survey data demonstrate a similar belief in the hard-working poor man's prospects. See Nelson, 61.

⁴⁹ Derived from Indian Institute of Public Opinion, Public Opinion Surveys, x (March 1965), 21–32Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Weber, Adna F., The Growth of Cities (New York 1899), chap. 2Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Davis, Kingsley, “The Urbanization of the Human Population,” in Cities (New York 1966), 18–19Google Scholar.

⁵² Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), “Structural Changes in Employment within the Context of Latin America's Economic Development,” Economic Bulletin for Latin America, x (October 1965), 166Google Scholar; see also Baer, Werner and Herve, Michel, “Employment and Industrialization in Developing Countries,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, LXXX (February 1966)Google Scholar.

⁵³ Thernstrom, Stephan, “The Case of Boston,” Massachusetts Historical Society, (Autumn 1967), 114–15Google Scholar, and “Working-Class Social Mobility in Industrial America,” mimeo., prepared for delivery at the Anglo-American Colloquium of the Society for Labour History (London, June 23, 1968), 5–6Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ William Mangin, “Latin American Squatter Settlements,” 69–70; Ray, Talton, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley 1968), passimGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁵ Portes, Alejandro, “Los Grupos Urbanos Marginados: Un Nuevo Intento de Explicación,” typescript (Santiago, Chile, June 1969)Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Karst, Kenneth, “Preliminary Report on a Study of the Internal Norms and Sanctions in Ten Barrios of Caracas,” mimeo., talk prepared for a meeting of Latin American Scholars (New York, Autumn 1968)Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ This experience is not necessarily positive. See Daniel Goldrich and others, “Political Integration,” 10–14.

⁵⁸ See, for example, Touraine, Alain, “Conscience ouvrière et développement econo-mique en Amerique Latine,” Sociologie du Travail, ix (July 1967), 229–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁹ Kerr, Clark and Siegel, Abraham, “The Inter-Industry Propensity to Strike: An International Comparison,” in Kornhauser, Arthur, Dubin, Robert, and Ross, Arthur, eds., Industrial Conflict (New York 1954)Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Zeitlin, Maurice, Revolutionary Politics and The Cuban Wording Class (Princeton 1967), chap. 6Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Germani, Gino, “Social and Political Consequences of Mobility,” in Smelser and Lipset, Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Development (Chicago 1966), 387Google Scholar.

⁶² Fried, Robert C., “Urbanization and Italian Politics,” Journal of Politics, xxix (August 1967), 525Google Scholar.

⁶³ Ray, chap. 7.

⁶⁴ New York Times, September 24, 1968.