¹ Neoclassical interpretations of NIC growth can be found in Galenson, Walter, ed., Foreign Trade and Investment: Development in the Newly Industrializing Asian Economies (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985)Google Scholar. Neoclassical interpretations of Korea include Krueger, Anne O., The Development of the Foreign Sector and Aid (Cambridge: Harvard University Press [Studies in the Modernization of the Republic of Korea 1945–1975], 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and the contributions to World Development 16 (January 1988), a special issue on Korea. The statist view of the NICS is articulated in White, Gordon and Wade, Robert, eds., Developmental States in East Asia (Brighton, England: Institute of Development Studies, Research Report No. 16, 1985)Google Scholar. Statist interpretations of Korea's growth include Jones, Leroy and Sakong, II, Government, Business and Entrepreneurship in Economic Development: The Korean Case (Cambridge: Harvard University Press [Studies in the Modernization of the Republic of Korea 1945–1975], 1980)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Shahid Yusuf and R. Kyle Peters, “Capital Accumulation and Economic Growth: The Korean Paradigm” (Washington, DC: World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 712, 1985). Rhee, Yung Whee, Ross-Larson, Bruce and Pursell, Gary, Korea's Competitive Edge (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984)Google Scholar, and Lim, Youngil, Government Policy and Private Enterprise: Korean Experience with Industrialization (Berkeley, CA: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1981)Google Scholar operate in a neoclassical framework, but give greater weight to the institutional setting.

² The pioneering work in this vein on East Asia's growth is Johnson, Chalmers, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1981)Google Scholar; it was extended to the NICS in Johnson's “Political Institutions and Economic Performance: The Government-Business Relationship in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan,” in Deyo, Fred, ed., The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987)Google Scholar. Bruce Cumings provides a historical explanation of the strong state in Korea and Taiwan in “The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy,” International Organization 38 (Winter 1984), 1–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Jones and Sakong (fn. 1); Wade and White (fn. 1); Haggard, Stephan and Moon, Chung-in, “Liberal, Dependent or Mercantile?: The South Korean State in the International System,” in Ruggie, John, ed., The Antinomies ofInterdepen-dence (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983)Google Scholar; Stephan Haggard and Tun-jen Cheng, “State and Foreign Capital in the East Asian NICS,” and Fred Deyo, “State and Labor: Modes of Political Exclusion in East Asian Development,” both in Deyo, ed., The Political Economy …, op. cit.; Alice Amsden, “The State and Taiwan's Economic Development,” in Evans, Peter, Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, and Skocpol, Theda, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tun-jen Cheng, “Political Regimes and Development Strategies: Korea and Taiwan,” in Gary Gereffi, ed., Paths of Development in Latin America and East Asia: Comparative and Historical Inquiries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, forthcoming); Gold, Thomas, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1986)Google Scholar; Hofheinz, Roy Jr., and Calder, Kent, The Eastasia Edge (New York: Basic Books, 1982), chap. 3Google Scholar.

³ See Haggard, Stephan and Kaufman, Robert, “The Politics of Stabilization and Structural Adjustment,” in Sachs, Jeffrey, ed., Developing Country Debt and Economic Performance I: The International Financial System (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

⁴ Olson, Mancur, The Rise and Decline of Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Bates, Robert, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Bases of Agricultural Policies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)Google Scholar.

⁵ See Kreps, David M., Milgrom, Paul, Roberts, John, and Wilson, Robert, “Rational Cooperation in the Finitely Repeated Prisoners' Dilemma,” Journal of Economic Theory 27 (August 1982), 245–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Axelrod, Robert, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984)Google Scholar.

⁶ Conflicting evidence on the relationship between regime type and economic performance can be found in Skidmore, Thomas E., “The Politics of Economic Stabilization in Postwar Latin America,” in Malloy, James M., ed., Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977)Google Scholar; Sheahan, John, “Market-Oriented Economic Policies and Political Repression in Latin America,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 28 (January 1980), 267—91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marsh, Robert, “Does Democracy Hinder Economic Development in the Latecomer Developing Nations?” Comparative Social Research 2 (1979), 215–49Google Scholar; Dick, William G., “Authoritarian versus Nonauthoritarian Approaches to Economic Development,” Journal of Political Economy 82 (July/August 1974), 817–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weede, Erich, “The Impact of Democracy on Economic Growth: Some Evidence of Cross-national Analysis,” Ky\los 36 (Fasc. 1, 1983), 21–40Google Scholar; Remmer, Karen, “The Politics of Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954–1984,” Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986), 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haggard and Kaufman (fn. 3).

⁷ The link between authoritarianism and economic development in East Asia is a theme in Jones and Sakong (fn. 1); Wade and White (fn. 1); Johnson (fn. 2, 1987); Cumings (fn. 2); Haggard and Moon (fn. 2); Haggard and Cheng (fn. 2); Amsden (fn. 2); Cheng (fn. 2); Gold (fn. 2); Deyo (fn. 2); Deyo, Fred, Dependent Development and Industrial Order: An Asian Case Study (New York: Praeger, 1981)Google Scholar; Hamilton, Clive, Capitalist Industrialization in Korea (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

⁸ This literature is summarized in Moe, Terry M., “The New Economics of Organization,” American Journal of Political Science 28 (November 1984), 739–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ For the theoretical argument on the importance of bureaucratic-organizational design in the context of developing countries, see Barbara Geddes, “Building 'State' Autonomy in Brazil, 1930–1964,” Comparative Politics, forthcoming; Johnson (fn. 2, 1981), chap. 1. On Korea, see Choi, Byung-Sun, “The Structure of Economic Policy-Making Institutions in Korea and the Strategic Role of the Economic Planning Board,” The Korean Journal of Policy Studies 2 (1987), 1–25Google Scholar; Kim, Byung-Kook, “State Capacity for Reform: The State in Korea and Mexico,” The Korean Journal of Policy Studies 3 (1988), 69–91Google Scholar.

¹⁰ See Haggard and Kaufman (fn. 3).

¹¹ On the collective-action dilemmas in the making of macroeconomic policy, see Barro, Robert J. and Gordon, David B., “Rules, Discretion and Reputation in a Model of Monetary Policy,” Journal of Monetary Economics 12 (July 1983), 101–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Alesina, Alberto, “Macroeconomic Policy in a Two-Party System as a Repeated Game,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 102 (August 1987), 651–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² North, Douglass C., “Government and the Cost of Exchange in History,” Journal of Economic History 44 (June 1984), 255–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 260; North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: W.W. Norton, 1981); Bates, Robert H., “Contra Contractarianism: Some Reflections on the New Institutionalism,” Politics and Society 16 (September 1988), 387–401CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ This applies to the early work of Katzenstein, Peter, “Conclusion: Domestic Structures and Strategies of Foreign Economic Policy,” Katzenstein, in, ed., Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978)Google Scholar, and is implicit in virtually all of the work linking authoritarianism with rapid growth in the NICS, including Jones and Sakong (fn. 1), Wade and White (fn. 1), Johnson (fn. 2, 1987), Cumings (fn. 2), Haggard and Moon (fn. 2), Haggard and Cheng (fn. 2), Amsden (fn. 2), Cheng (fn. 2), Gold (fn. 2), and Deyo (fn. 8).

¹⁴ See Kitschelt, Herbert, “Four Theories of Public Policy Making and Fast Breeder Reactor Development,” International Organization 40 (Winter 1986), 65–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ This critique is made by Hamilton, Nora, The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Michael Shafer, “States, Sectors, and Social Forces: Korea and Zambia Confront Economic Restructuring,” Comparative Politics, forthcoming. A critical reflection on the relationship between Marxism and rational-choice models is included in Przeworski, Adam, “Marxism and Rational Choice,” Politics and Society 10 (September 1985), 125–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ On the difficulties faced by transitional democracies in Latin America, see Kaufman, Robert and Stallings, Barbara, “Debt and Democracy in the 1980s: The Latin American Experience,” in Stallings and Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Katzenstein, Peter, Small States in World Martlets: Industrial Policy in Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Lange, Peter, “Unions, Workers, and Wage Regulation: The Rational Bases of Consent,” in Goldthorpe, John H., ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford: Claren-don Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ On the economic crisis, see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development [hereafter World Bank], Korea: Current Developments and Policy Issues (Washington, DC: World Bank, Report #3005-KO, 1980)Google Scholar. On the attendant political instability, see Lee, Chong-Sik, “South Korea 1979: Confrontation, Assassination, and Transition,” Asian Survey 20 (January 1980), 63–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar. All statistical data are from Economic Planning Board [hereafter EPB], Economic Indicators (Seoul: EPB, 1988)Google Scholar.

²⁰ EPB, Uri Gyungje ui Hyun Hwang qwa XJnyong Bangan [Present Status of Our Economy and Management Policies] (Seoul: EPB, December 1982), 4–8; Collins, Susan and Park, Won Am, “External Debt and Macroeconomic Performance in Korea,” in Sachs, Jeffrey, ed., Developing Country Debt and Economic Performance III: Country Studies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

²¹ Our primary source on the internal debates on structural adjustment is Korea Development Institute [KDI], Gyungje Anjunghwa Sichaek Jaryo Jip [Collection of Materials on Economic Stabilization Policies] (Seoul: KDI, 1982), vols. 1 and 2. See also Michell, Tony, “What Happens to Economic Growth when Neo-Classical Policy Replaces Keynsian?: The Case of South Korea,” IDS Bulletin 13 (December 1981), 60–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Korea Exchange Bank, Monthly Review 14 (December 1980)Google Scholar; “Daedam: Ilsi Chimchae Nya Gujojok Bulwhang Inya?” [Roundtable: Temporary Downturn or Structural Recession?], Shin Dong Ah, July 1980, pp. 72–101; The Republic of Korea, Je 5 Cha 5 Gaenyun Gyungje Sahoi Gaebal Gye-Hyoik: Sujung Jichim 1984–1986 [The Fifth Five Year Social and Economic Development Plan: Directions for Revision 1984–1986] (Seoul, 1983), 1–20.

²² For an introduction to the plan, see EPB, Heavy and Chemical Plan (Seoul: EPB, 1973). For the internal debate, see KDI, Sanup Jungchaek ui Gibon Gwaje wa Jiwon Sichaek ui Gae-pyun Bangan [Fundamental Tasks of Industrial Policy and Directions for Reform in Supportive Policies] (Seoul: KDI Research Report #82–09, 1982).

²³ Moon, Chung-in, “South Korea: Between Security and Vulnerability,” in Katz, James, ed., Implications of Third World Military Industrialization (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1986)Google Scholar; Byung Yun Park, “Junghwahak Gongup ui Naemak” [”The Inside Story of the Heavy and Chemical Industries], Shin Dong Ah, May 1980, pp. 194–210; Young Chul Park, “70 Nyundae ui Goimul, Gwayoksok ui Junghwahak Gongup” [Monster in the 1970s: The Ambition of Heavy and Chemical Industrialization], Chungkyung Munhwa, May 1984, pp. 138–47; KDI (fn. 21), 1175–90.

²⁴ World Bank (fn. 19), 19.

²⁵ Lindauer, David, Labor Market Behavior in the Republic of Korea: An Analysis of Wages and Their Impact on the Economy (Washington, DC: World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 641, 1984)Google Scholar.

²⁶ KDI (fn. 21), 1015–34; I' Sakong, “Gyungje Sungjang gwa Gyungjeryuk Jibjung” [Economic Growth and the Concentration of Economic Power], KDI Review 1 (March 1980), 2–13; Hankuk Ilbo, September 29, 1981, Appendix pp. 5–8; Dongah Ilbo, December i, 1984, p. 4; Leroy Jones, “Jaehul and the Concentration of Economic Power in Korean Development: Issues, Evidence and Alternatives,” in II Sakong, ed., Macroeconomic Policy and Industrial Development Issues (Seoul: Korea Development Institute, 1987).

²⁷ The change in leadership came in December 1978. Shin Hyun-Whack replaced Nam Duck-Woo and brought young economists critical of past policy—including Rang Kyung-Sik, Suh Suk Jun, Kim Ki Hwan, and particularly Kim Jai-Ik—to positions of prominence.

²⁸ KDI (fn. 21), 20–22, 221–56.

²⁹ KDI (fn. 21), 22–24, 345”75, 379–7; Kwang Sik Sohn, “Gyungje Daetongryung, Park Chung Hee ui Dilema” [Economic President: Park Chung Hee's Dilemma], Chungkyung Munhwa, December 1983, pp. 66–75.

³⁰ See Office of the President, Chun Doo Hwan Daetongryung Yonsuljib: Je 5 Gonghwaku\ Chulbum Pyun: 1980.8–1981.4 [Collection of President Chun Doo Hwan's Speeches: The Launching of the Fifth Republic from August 1980 to April 1981] (Seoul, 1981); KDI (fn. 21), 679–98, 1190–1214; EPB, Gongjung Guhlae Baiksuh [White Book on Fair Trade] (Seoul: EPB, 1984).

³¹ Interviews with Shin Byung-Hyun: Shin Dong Ah, November 1981, pp. 181–93; Hankuk Ilbo, August 25, 1981, p. 3.

³² EPB, Gyungje Baiksuh [White Book on the Economy] (Seoul: EPB, 1981), 73–75.

³³ On the Korean budgetary process, see Shinohara, Miyohei, Yanagahira, Toru, and Kim, Kwang Suk, The Japanese and Korean Experiences in Managing Development (Washing ton, DC: World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 574, 1983), 57–63Google Scholar.

³⁴ Office of the Budget, EPB, “Kukga Yesan Donggyul gwa Jungchaek Baegyung: Gyoyu-kyong Jaryo” [National Budget Freeze and Policy Background: Educational Materials], mimeo, August 1983; Suk June Cho, “Jungbu Ginung ui Jaegyumto wa Jungbu Ginung Bunsuk Jakup” [Reexamination and Analysis of Government Functions], in Kwang Choi, ed., Kukga Yesan gwa Jungchaek Mokpyo [National Budget and Policy Objectives] (Seoul: KDI Report #83–07, 1983); Chosun Ilbo, September 23, 1985, p. 3.

³⁵ Nelson, Joan, “The Politics of Stabilization,” in Feinberg, Richard E. and Kallab, Valeriana, eds., Adjustment Crisis in the Third World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1984)Google Scholar; Bienen, Henry and Gersovitz, Mark, “Economic Stabilization, Conditionality, and Political Stability,” International Organization 39 (Autumn 1985), 729–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ Byung Suh Ryu, “Yanggok Gwanli wa Gyejung” [Grain Management Account], in Kwang Choi (fn. 34); Sung Hun Kim, “Yangjung Jungchaek ui Junhwan gwa Baegyung” [Background and Reality of the Grain Management Policy Shift], Shing Dong Ah, June 1979, pp. 176–85.

³⁷ Office of the Budget (fn. 34), 48–50.

³⁸ Sun Lee, “Biryo Gyejung ui Unyong Hynghwang Bunsuk” [Analysis of the Fertilizer Account Operations], in Kwang Choi (fn. 34).

³⁹ Office of the Budget (fn. 34), 51–54; Dae Hee Song, “Gong Giup ui Nakhasansik Insa Siltae” [Revolving-Door Personnel Management of Public Enterprises], Shin Dong Ah, April 1985, pp. 404–13.

⁴⁰ Lindauer (fn. 25); Funkoo Park and Tarsicio Castaneda, “Structural Adjustment and the Role of the Labor Market” (Seoul: KDI Working Paper No. 8705, 1987).

⁴¹ See Soo Kon Kim, ed., Nosa Gwangye Jungchaek Gwaje wa Banghyang [Tasks of Labor-Management Relations and Policy Directions] (Seoul: KDI, 1983); Christian Institute for the Study of Justice and Development [CISJD], Gaejung Nodongbub ui Naeyong gwa Gaesun Banghyang [The Contents of the Amended Labor Law and Directions for Improvement] (Seoul: CISJD, 1981).

⁴² Launius, Michael, “The State and Labor in South Korea,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 16 (October and December 1984), 7Google Scholar.

⁴³ Jung Suk Suh, “Daehan Nochongul Haebu Handa” [The Anatomy of the Federation of Korean Trade Unions], Shin Dong Ah, April 1985, pp. 482–508; Far Eastern Economic Review, July 19, 1984, pp. 73–74.

⁴⁴ On the role of the financial sector in Korea's development, see Cole, David and Park, Yung Chul, Financial Development in Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983)Google Scholar; Hong, Wontack and Park, Yung Chul, “The Financing of Export-Oriented Growth in Korea,” in Tan, Augustine H. H. and Kapur, Basant, eds., Pacific Growth and Financial Interdependence (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1985)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ EPB (fn. 20), 34–35.

⁴⁶ On the financial scandals, see Far Eastern Economic Review, May 21, 1982, pp. 52–56, and October 22, 1982, pp. 68–69.

⁴⁷ Hankuk llbo, April 9, 1985, p. 4; Chosun Ilbo, May 12, 1986, p. 3; Laxmi Nakarmi and Jang Jung-Soo, “Big Business Looks Less Beautiful,” Business Korea, December 1984, p. 25.

⁴⁸ Dongah Ilbo, August 22, 1984, p. 3.

⁴⁹ Shin in “Daedam: Gyungje Nankuk, Himuroman Motpunda” [Roundtable: Economic Difficulties Cannot Be Solved by Force Alone], Shin Dong Ah, May 1985, p. 434.

⁵⁰ These themes were widely used by the opposition. See So Woong Hwang, “Jungchi Jakum ui Hoirang”[Channels of Political Funds], Chungkyung Munhwa, December 1982, pp. 118–28; Sang Ki Sim, “Jungchi Jakum ui Naemak” [The Inside Story of Political Funds], Wolgan Choongang, October 1977, pp. 90–103; Kyung Nam Lee, “Haebang ihu Gyonryu-khyung Bujung Chukjae Saryaidul” [Cases of Illicit Wealth Accumulation through Political Connections since Independence], Shin Dong Ah, April 1985, pp. 290–311; Seung Je Koh, “Chaebol Giup gwa Bangiup Gamjung” [Chaebol and Anti-corporate Sentiment], Wolgan Chosun, August 1983, pp. 74–83. For a critical review of trends in income distribution, see Koo, Hagen, “The Political Economy of Income Distribution in South Korea: The Impact of the State's Industrialization Policies,” World Development 12 (October 1984), 1029–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵¹ KDI (fn. 21), 897–911; “Import Liberalization Plan and Its Background,” Hanil Monthly Bulletin, April 1984, pp. 5–12; EPB, Gongjung Guhlae Eaiksuh [White Book on Fair Trade] (1983, 1984).

⁵² Dongah Ilbo, August 22, 1984; Hankuk Ilbo, September 20, 1984.

⁵³ See Federation of Korean Industries, “Anjunghwa Sichaek gwa Giup ui Jakum Sajung” [The Stabilization Policy and the Financial Situation of Corporations], Chun Gyung Ryun, December 1983, pp. 28–34; “Daegiup Yosin Gyuje ae Paengpaenghan Gongbangjun” [The Feud over Credit Controls on Big Business], Maegyung, August 27, 1984.

⁵⁴ The debt-to-equity ratios for Korean firms, derived from 202 of the 230 firms listed on the Korean stock exchange, are high compared even with those of Japan (3.2), which in turn are three times those of the United States (1.1). See Korean Exchange Bank, Monthly Review 18 (May 1984), 2–4Google Scholar; Far Eastern Economic Review, July 19, 1984, p. 44.

⁵⁵ Far Eastern Economic Review, May 16, 1985, p. 92.

⁵⁶ Hanhufk Ilbo, February 23 and 26, 1985; Business Korea, August and September 1985.

⁵⁷ For example, when the international contractor, Keangnam Enterprises, faced bankruptcy, the Korea Exchange Bank provided loans to Daewoo to salvage the company.

⁵⁸ Hankuk Ilbo, March 25, 1987; Chosun Ilbo, May 12, 1986.

⁵⁹ See, for example, Far Eastern Economic Review, October 24 and November 14, 1985, and April 24, 1986; Laxmi Nakarmi, “Deputy Prime Minister Kim: Theory into Practice,” Business Korea, February 1986, pp. 14–17.

⁶⁰ See, for example, Aghedli, Vijan and Ruerte, Marquez, A Case of Successful Adjustment: The Korean Experience During 1980–1984 (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund Occasional Paper No. 39, 1985)Google Scholar; Victorio Corbo and Sang Woo Nam, “Controlling Inflation: Korea's Recent Experience” (Seoul: KDI Working Paper No. 8608, 1986).

⁶¹ Ibid.

⁶² Ikenberry, G. John, “The Irony of State Strength: Comparative Responses to the Oil Shocks in the 1970s,” International Organization 40 (Winter 1986), 105–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶³ Barry Ames argues that authoritarian regimes use fiscal policy in ways similar to democratic regimes. See Ames, , Political Survival: Politicians and Public Policy in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987)Google Scholar. The hardline-softline conflict is a central theme of Stepan, Alfred, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 4Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Koh, B. C., “The 1985 Parliamentary Election in South Korea,” Asian Survey 25 (September 1985), 883–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁵ Public opinion data in Korea are notoriously weak, but from September 15–19, 1986, the pro-government Kyunghyang Daily conducted a nationwide survey. The results were so unfavorable to the government that the poll was suppressed. A copy was later obtained and published in The People's Korea, February 21, 1987, pp. 6–8. The poll showed a surprising lack of confidence in economic management; for example, 86.5 percent of respondents believed the economy to be in crisis, with only 10.1 percent optimistic. For overviews of the electoral issues, see Hankuk Ilbo, February 9, 1985; Far Eastern Economic Review, February 6, 1985.

⁶⁶ On the ideological views of the students, see Park, Hyun Chae and Cho, Hee Yon, eds., Hankuk Sahoi Gusingche Ronjaeng [Controversies over the Social Formation], vols. 1 and 2 (Seoul: Juksan, 1989)Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ The People's Korea (fn. 65), 7.

⁶⁸ Dongah Ilbo, January 1, 1986; Maeng Ho Choi, “Repo: Silup, Daechak i upda” [Report: Unemployment, No Options], Shin Dong Ah, December 1985, 449–59.

⁶⁹ EPB (fn. 20), 34–35; Chosun Ilbo, May 30, 1985.

⁷⁰ Chosun Ilbo, October 17, 1986; Hankuk Ilbo, March 17, 1987.

⁷¹ The best account of the political events leading up to the presidential elections of December 1987 is James M. West and Edward J. Baker, “The 1987 Constitutional Reforms in South Korea: Electoral Processes and Judicial Independence,” Harvard Human Rights Yearbook 1 (Spring 1988), 135–77.

⁷² Hankuk Ilbo, December 10, 1988.

⁷³ Oi Boong Hwang, “Repo: Haksaeng ui Nodong Undong Hyungjang” [Field Report on Students' Labor Movement], Shin Dong Ah, June 1985, pp. 466–85.

⁷⁴ Chosun Ilbo, September 9, 1987.

⁷⁵ Undonggwon, or the Movement Circle, refers to a coalition of radical students, intellectuals, and labor and church activists organized under the slogan of “people, nation, and democracy.” The Circle constitutes the heart of the radical opposition movement in Korea.

⁷⁶ Dongah llbo, September 29, 1987.

⁷⁷ See esp. Deyo (fn. 2).

⁷⁸ Hankuk, llbo, March 25, 1987.

⁷⁹ The economic policies of the presidential candidates are outlined in Jae Wan Choi, “Nambaldoin Gyungjegongyak, Silhyunsung Hibak Hada” [Overblown Economic Promises: Feasibility Dim], Shin Dong Ah, January 1988, 238–45.

⁸⁰ Lee Jong Chan, former floor leader and an architect of the Fifth Republic, in Wolgan Chosun, January 1987, p. 155.

⁸¹ Ikenberry (fn. 62).

⁸² Katzenstein (fn. 17).