Unintentional herbicide resistance gene stacking in canola may alter the sensitivity of volunteers to herbicides of alternative modes of action commonly used for their control. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to investigate the response of three single-herbicide–resistant (HR) cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone), one non-HR cultivar, and seven multiple (double or triple)–HR experimental lines to 2,4-D (amine and ester), MCPA ester, and metribuzin applied at the two- to three-leaf stage and of one non-HR and four HR cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone, bromoxynil) to 2,4-D amine applied at two growth stages (two- to three-leaf stage and five- to six-leaf stage). All canola cultivars or lines treated at the two- to three-leaf stage responded similarly to increasing doses of each of the three herbicides. At the five- to six-leaf stage, however, the bromoxynil HR cultivar was less sensitive to 2,4-D than the other cultivars. The results of this study suggest that canola with multiple-herbicide–resistance traits does not differ from cultivars that are non-HR or single HR in its sensitivity to herbicides commonly used to control volunteers. All volunteers, whether non-HR, single HR, or multiple HR, should be treated when plants are most sensitive to herbicides (two- to four-leaf stage) to reduce their interference against crops and their perpetuation of gene flow.

Herbicides applied to container plants in nurseries are transported in runoff water to on- and off-site ponds and retention basins. This study was conducted to determine biotic and abiotic effects on isoxaben dissipation in model flow-through retention basins to maximize aqueous isoxaben degradation. Field studies were conducted in 1999 and 2000 to evaluate the effects of gravel and pine bark amendments and water retention times on isoxaben persistence in holding basins. In 1999, total isoxaben discharge into flow-through gravel-filled basins was greater than isoxaben losses from gravel and nongravel basins in which water was retained. Photodegradation appeared to be greater in basins without gravel, indicating that gravel protected isoxaben from photolysis. Further studies determined the effect of water retention time and the presence of aged pine bark amendment on isoxaben discharge from basins. Isoxaben discharge level was reduced when water retention time was increased from 3 to 5 d. In the 3-d retention time treatment, added pine bark reduced peak isoxaben discharge by 45% and total isoxaben by 53% at 14 d after treatment. In treatments containing pine bark within the retention basins, isoxaben was released over a longer period of time. No differences were observed in 5-d water retention time treatments with and without pine bark. Analysis of gravel from isoxaben-treated retention basins indicated the presence of several genera of bacteria including Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter, and Cellulomonas. Some isolates of Pseudomonas, Rahnella, Methobacterium, and Paenibacillus from the basins grew on M9 medium with isoxaben as the sole carbon and energy source, indicating their ability to metabolize isoxaben. Results indicate that retention basins are helpful in reducing isoxaben levels before release or reuse of runoff water from a container nursery, and that retention time of runoff water in basins is the most important factor in reducing isoxaben discharge.

Vegetative filter strips (VFS) potentially reduce herbicide transport from agricultural fields by increasing herbicide mass infiltrated (M inf) and herbicide mass adsorbed (M as) compared with bare field soil. However, there are conflicting reports in the literature concerning the contribution of Mas to herbicide trapping efficiency (TE). Moreover, no study has evaluated TE among metolachlor and metolachlor metabolites in a VFS. This experiment was conducted to compare TE, M inf, and M as among metolachlor, metolachlor oxanilic acid (OA), and metolachlor ethanesulfonic acid (ESA) in buffalograss filter strips. Runoff was applied as a point source upslope of a 1- × 3-m microwatershed at a rate of 750 L h−1. The point source was fortified with metolachlor, metolachlor OA, and metolachlor ESA, each at 0.12 μg ml−1. After moving through the plot, water samples were collected at 5-min intervals and stored at 5 C until analysis. Water samples were extracted using solid-phase extraction and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography–photodiode array detection. TE was significantly greater for metolachlor (25.3%) as compared with the OA (15.5%) and ESA metabolites (14.2%). The average M inf was 8.5% and was not significantly different among compounds. Significantly more metolachlor (17.3%) was retained as Mas compared with either metolachlor OA (7.0%) or metolachlor ESA (5.5%). Moreover, M as accounted for 68 and 42% of the total TE for metolachlor and metolachlor metabolites, respectively. These results demonstrate that adsorption to the VFS grass, grass thatch, or soil surface (or all) is an important retention mechanism for metolachlor and metolachlor metabolites, especially under saturated conditions. Moreover, the Mas data indicate that metolachlor is preferentially retained by the VFS grass, grass thatch, or soil surface (or all) compared with the OA and ESA metabolites. Greater metolachlor retention in VFS compared with the OA and ESA metabolites may partially explain why metolachlor metabolites are frequently measured at higher concentrations than metolachlor is in surface water.

Spotted knapweed is an invasive mycorrhizal weed prevalent in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Little is known about the effects of spotted knapweed or its management methods on soil quality and soil structure. This study compared soils from spotted knapweed–infested areas with areas where spotted knapweed is being managed using several herbicides and mechanical treatments. We measured concentrations of glomalin, a glycoprotein produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), that is correlated with soil aggregate stability, AMF hyphal length, and percent water-stable aggregates (WSA) in soils from managed and unmanaged areas. Areas with high knapweed density (unmanaged areas) generally had lower glomalin concentrations and AMF hyphal lengths compared with areas receiving chemical and combined mechanical–chemical management treatments. Total glomalin was significantly negatively correlated with percent knapweed cover. However, WSA was high (70 to 80%) in soils from all management treatments and was not affected by knapweed cover. Our results suggest that spotted knapweed does not have negative effects on soil quality from our study site, likely because of the high aggregate stability of the soils in the area. However, Centaurea maculosa may have negative effects on soil quality in soils with lower aggregate stability.

Field research was conducted in 1999 and 2000 to determine the effect of reduced glyphosate rates on growth and yield of nonglyphosate-resistant cotton. Rates of 9, 18, 35, 70, 140, and 280 g ha−1, representing 0.008, 0.016, 0.031 0.063, 0.125, and 0.25, respectively, of the maximum use rate per application (1,120 g ha−1), were applied to cotton at the two-, five-, or nine-node growth stage. On the basis of visual injury estimates, cotton was more tolerant to glyphosate at the nine-node than at earlier growth stages. Plant dry weight was reduced with 70 g ha−1 of glyphosate or higher, when applied at the two- and five-node growth stages in two of three experiments. Dry weight was not affected by glyphosate at the nine-node stage. Plant height also was unaffected by glyphosate rates below 70 g ha−1, but height reduction was noted for all growth stages by experiment combinations, with the exception of the nine-node application for both experiments in 2000, with herbicide rates of 70 g ha−1 or higher. Cotton maturity delay, as noted by an increase in node above white flower number, was observed only at the highest glyphosate rate applied to two- and five-node cotton in one of three experiments. Percent open boll data analysis indicated a decreased opportunity of observing an open boll with increasing glyphosate rate, and this effect was greater at the five-node compared with the two- and nine-node stages in two of three experiments. Seedcotton yield after all glyphosate applications was equivalent to that for the nontreated control.