¹ ‘Jagudas in Ibadan’, West African Pilot, 25 11 1940, 5.Google Scholar

² Humphries, S.L., Hooligans or Rebels?: An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford, 1981), 181.Google Scholar

³ Yoruba people have the status of a child (ọmọ) until marriage; therefore all males are boys until they wed: Krapf-Askari, E., Yoruba Towns and Cities: An Enquiry into the Nature of Urban Social Phenomena (Oxford, 1969), 54.Google Scholar

⁴ Levine, R.A., Klein, N.H. and Owen, C.R., ‘Father-child relationships and changing lifestyles in Ibadan, Nigeria’, in Miner, H. (ed.), The City in Modem Africa (London, 1967), 216Google Scholar; Humphries, , Hooligans or Rebels?, 1, 103.Google Scholar

⁵ Gugler, J., Urbanization and Social Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1978), 34–5Google Scholar. For bibliographies on African urbanization, see O'Connor, A.M., Urbanization in Tropical Africa (Boston, Mass., 1981)Google Scholar; Tarver, J.D. (ed.), Urbanization in Africa: A Handbook (London, 1994).Google Scholar

⁶ Clinard, M.B. and Abbott, D.J., Crime in Developing Countries: A Comparative Perspective (New York, 1973), 84–9.Google Scholar

⁷ Gupta, K.K., Pickpockets: The Mysterious Species (Delhi, 1987), 36Google Scholar. Also, Dickens, C., The Adventures of Oliver Twist (London, 1839)Google Scholar; Bresson, R., Pickpocket (black and white film, Paris, 1959)Google Scholar; Maurer, D.W., Whiz Mob: A Correlation of the Technical Argot of Pickpockets With Their Beliavior Patterns (New Haven, 1964).Google Scholar

⁸ Elgee, C.H., The Evolution of Ibadan (Lagos, 1914), 11.Google Scholar

⁹ Mayne, A., The Imagined Slum: Newspaper Representation in Three Cities, 1870–1914 (Leicester, 1993), 1–13.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Bamaisaye, A., ‘The spatial distribution of juvenile delinquency and adult crime in the city of Ibadan’, International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 2 (1974), 65–83.Google Scholar

¹¹ Humphries, , Hooligans or Rebels?, 151, 176–8.Google Scholar

¹² Gottfredson, M.R. and Hirschi, T., A General Theory of Crime (Stanford, 1990), 30–1, 85–120Google Scholar; Lilly, J.R., Cullen, F.T. and Ball, R.A., Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences (London, 1995), 110–30Google Scholar; Shoemaker, D.J., Theories of Delinquency (Oxford, 1996), 76–7, 192.Google Scholar

¹³ Lloyd, P.C., Mabogunje, A.L. and Awe, B. (eds), The City of Ibadan (Cambridge, 1967)Google Scholar; Levine, et al. , ‘Father-child relationships’, 215–55Google Scholar; Cohen, A., Custom and Politics in Urban Africa (London, 1969)Google Scholar; Krapf-Askari, , Yoruba TownsGoogle Scholar; Post, K.W.J. and Jenkins, G.D., The Price of Liberty (Cambridge, 1973)Google Scholar; Williams, G., ‘Political consciousness among the Ibadan poor’, in de Kadt, E. and Williams, G., Sociology and Development (London, 1974), 109–39Google Scholar; Lloyd, , Power and Independence (London, 1974)Google Scholar; Simpson, G.E., Yoruba Religion and Medicine in Ibadan (Ibadan, 1980)Google Scholar. For a literary evocation where ‘Lucky Dip’ and pickpocketing are mentioned, see Soyinka, W., Ibadan: The Penkelemes Years, A Memoir: 1946–1965 (London, 1994), 242–8.Google Scholar

¹⁴ African Advertiser, African Mirror, Daily Service, [Nigerian] Daily Times, Nigerian Observer, West African Pilot, Southern Nigeria Defender, Western Echo, Nigerian Tribune and Yoruba News. The latter four newspapers were published in Ibadan, while the others were Lagos-based but had Ibadan desks.

¹⁵ Elgee, , Evolution of Ibadan, 13Google Scholar; Johnson, S., The History of the Yorubas (London, 1921)Google Scholar; Akinyele, I.B., The Outlines of Ibadan History (Lagos, 1946)Google Scholar; Ajayi, J.F.A. and Smith, R., Yoruba Warfare in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1964)Google Scholar; Awe, B., ‘Ibadan, its early beginning’, in Lloyd et al., City of Ibadan, 11–25Google Scholar; Akintoye, S.A., Revolution and Power Politics in Yorubaland, 1840–1893 (London, 1971)Google Scholar; Falola, T., The Political Economy of a Pre-Colonial African State: Ibadan, 1830–1900 (Ife, 1984).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Bascom, W., ‘Urbanization among the Yoruba’, American Journal of Sociology, 60, 5 (1955), 448CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘Some aspects of Yoruba urbanism’, American Anthropologist, 64, 4 (1962), 699–709Google Scholar; Bairoch, P., Cities and Economic Development (Chicago, 1988), 412–13.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Elgee, , Evolution of Ibadan, 13.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Mabogunje, A.L., ‘The morphology of Ibadan’, in Lloyd et al., City of Ibadan, 45Google Scholar; Mabogunje, , Urbanization in Nigeria (London, 1968), 194Google Scholar; Onibokun, A., ‘Forces shaping the physical environment of cities in developing countries: the Ibadan case’, Land Economics, 49, 4 (1973), 424–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Olayemi, O.A., ‘Movements of population from urban to rural areas of Yoruba towns, Nigeria: case study of Ibadan’, Geneve-Afrique, 17, 2 (1979), 65–81Google Scholar; Aronson, D.R., The City is Our Farm (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 27Google Scholar; Choker, B.A., ‘External European influences and indigenous social values in urban development and planning in the Third World: the case of Ibadan, Nigeria’, Planning Perspectives, 83, 3 (1993), 283–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁹ Ward-Price, H.L., Dark Subjects (London, 1939), 263–7Google Scholar; Firth, R., ‘Social problems and research in British West Africa: Part I’, Africa, 17, 2 (1947), opp. 89Google Scholar; Schwerdtfeger, F.W., Traditional Housing in African Cities (Chichester, 1982), 101–82Google Scholar; Dmochowski, Z.R., An Introduction to Nigerian Traditional Architecture, Volume Two (Lagos, 1990), ch. 2Google Scholar. Missionaries introduced corrugated roofing to Ibadan in 1854. Poet John Pepper Clark described the city as a ‘running splash of rust and gold – flung and scattered among seven hills like broken china in the sun’, while Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka called Ibadan a ‘hastily welded scrap-iron hive’: Clark, J.P., A Reed in the Tide (London, 1965), 11Google Scholar; Soyinka, , Ibadan, 87.Google Scholar

²⁰ Mabogunje, , ‘Morphology of Ibadan’, 49Google Scholar; Peel, J.D.Y., Ijeshas and Nigerians: The Incorporation of a Yoruba Kingdom, 1890s–1970s (Cambridge, 1983), 147Google Scholar. Oke means ‘hill’.

²¹ Rhodes House Library, Oxford [hereafter RH], MSS.Afr.s.656, Papers of Ward-Price, ‘Lebanon Street [photographs 1A and 1B]’, Photograph Album, 05 1935.Google Scholar

²² Mabogunje, , ‘Morphology of Ibadan’, 49–50Google Scholar; Hodder, B.W., ‘The markets of Ibadan’, in Hodder, B.W. and Ukwu, U.I., Markets of West Africa (Ibadan, 1969), 100.Google Scholar

²³ Ekotedo means ‘the settlement of people from Lagos’: Mabogunje, , ‘Morphology of Ibadan’, 49.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ibid., 49–50; Aronson, , City is Our Farm, 27.Google Scholar

²⁵ Mabogunje, , Urbanization in Nigeria, 195Google Scholar; Post, and Jenkins, , Price of Liberty, 13.Google Scholar

²⁶ Krapf-Askari, , Yoniba Towns, 59.Google Scholar

²⁷ Mabogunje, , ‘Morphology of Ibadan’, 43Google Scholar; idem, Urbanization in Nigeria, 229.Google Scholar

²⁸ Schwerdtfeger, , Traditional Housing, 124–9.Google Scholar

²⁹ Population pressure led to encroachments on to these floodplains with disastrous consequences for lives and property in the floods of 1963 and the 1980s: Schwerdtfeger, , Traditional Housing, 169.Google Scholar

³⁰ ‘Over the hills and dales, by “Man-About-Town”’, Western Echo, 10 11 1945, 3Google Scholar. Later, when contrasting the quiet life of native Ibadans, the noted geographer of Nigerian urbanization described Ekotedo as ‘very much alive, [with] most of the facilities for social relaxation: beer parlours, dance places, social clubs’: Mabogunje, , ‘Ibadan: black metropolis’, Nigeria Magazine, 68 (1961), 25.Google Scholar

³¹ National Archives, Ibadan [hereafter NAI], Ibadan Divisional Office [hereafter IBADIV] 1/1/167, Akande, M., Ekotedo, , to Abasi, Olubadan and Sumner, L.R.C., Divisional Officer, Ibadan, 9 05 1939.Google Scholar

³² ‘Ekotedo, Ibadan’, West African Pilot, 12 11 1940, 2.Google Scholar

³³ NAI, Ministry of Home Affairs, Ibadan [hereafter IBMINHOME] 1/26, A.V.D. Ince, Commissioner of Police, Oyo-Ondo Province, to Ward-Price, Resident, Oyo Province, 19 01 1937Google Scholar. Also, Heap, S., ‘“Those that are cooking the gins”: the distillation of ogogoro in Nigeria’, forthcoming.Google Scholar

³⁴ Parrinder, G., Religion in an African City (London, 1953)Google Scholar; Mabogunje, , ‘Morphology of Ibadan’, 20.Google Scholar

³⁵ Galletti, R., Baldwin, K.D.S. and Dina, I.O., Nigerian Cocoa Farmers (Oxford, 1956), 253–6.Google Scholar

³⁶ ‘This jaguda menace’, West African Pilot, 25 11 1940, 4.Google Scholar

³⁷ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Minute by Shankland, T.M., Assistant Divisional Officer, Ibadan, 31 03 1939Google Scholar; NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Akande, to Abasi, and Sumner, , 9 05 1939.Google Scholar

³⁸ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Minute by Shankland, 31 03 1939.Google Scholar

³⁹ Olusanya, G.O., The Second World War and Politics in Nigeria, 1939–1953 (London, 1973), 44–71Google Scholar; Falola, T., Politics and Economy in Ibadan, 1893–1945 (Lagos, 1989), 332.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ ‘32 “Undesirables” are rounded up by police’, Southern Nigeria Defender, 20 09 1949, 1Google Scholar; ‘32 “Undesirables”: 27 homeless!’, Southern Nigeria Defender, 21 09 1949, 2.Google Scholar

⁴¹ NAI, Oyo Provincial Office [hereafter OYOPROF] 1/1352/vol.II, Minute by Abell, A.F., District Officer, Ibadan, 29 09 1943.Google Scholar

⁴² ‘Tọwọbapo, ọmọ jaguda (Gang of pickpockets)’, Yoruba News, 19 05 1936, 4Google Scholar. Thanks to Olatunji Ojo and Gladys Effa-Heap, University of Ibadan, for help with translation.

⁴³ NAI, OYOPROF 1/1608, Lynton-Hill, D., Commissioner of Police, Oyo-Ondo Province, to Ward-Price, 5 10 1935Google Scholar; ‘Questions in the Legislative Council’, African Advertiser, 2 10 1936, 7Google Scholar; NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Oduyoye, O., UAC, Ibadan, to Sumner, 27 03 1939.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ ‘Crime wave in disrepute’, Southern Nigeria Defender, 7 07 1949, 2.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ ‘Letter to the editor, Undergraduates of theft, from Bola Ige, Ibadan’, Daily Times, 3 10 1952, 2Google Scholar. Roga means ‘rogue and vagabond’.

⁴⁶ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Akinjobi, J.N., Secretary, Band of Unity, Ibadan, to Sumner, 13 04 1939.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Odunsi, J.N., President, Traders and Storekeepers Union, Ogunpa Street, Ibadan, to Abasi and G.B. Williams, Acting Resident, Oyo Province, 3 04 1939Google Scholar; NAI, OYOPROF 1/1608, Odunsi, , ‘Without Prejudice’ Petition, to Abasi, 3 01 1944.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Odunsi, , ‘Collective Sufferers’ Petition, to Sumner, 4 03 1939.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ ‘Tọwọbapo, ọmọ jaguda’, 4.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ ‘Aṣiri ọmọ jaguda (Secrets of pickpockets)’, Yoruba News, 19–26 03 1940, 4Google Scholar; NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Abasi, to Dickinson, E.N.C., District Officer, Ibadan, 5 06 1940.Google Scholar

⁵¹ ‘Won tun de! (They are back!)’, Yoruba News, 13–27 12 1938, 2Google Scholar; ‘Aṣiri ọmọ jaguda’, 4.Google Scholar

⁵² ‘Won tun de!: jaguda ni ìlú Ibadan (They are back!: pickpockets in Ibadan town)’, Yoruba News, 31 10 1939, 5.Google Scholar

⁵³ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Odunsi, to Abasi, and Williams, , 3 04 1939.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Abadi, to Dickinson, , 5 06 1940.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Odunsi, to Abasi, and Williams, , 3 04 1939.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ NAI, OYOPROF 1/1608, Odunsi, to Abasi, , 3 01 1944.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ NAI, IBASIV 1/1/167, Oshunse, C.A., Amunigun Street, Ibadan, to Ward-Price, 18 12 1936.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ ‘“Jaguda Boys” at Ibadan employ “Hands Up” system’, West African Pilot, 13 01 1941, 1Google Scholar. Also, ‘Jaguda-pali, baba bilisi! (Pickpocket driven to desperation!)’, Yoruba News, 3 03 1936, 4Google Scholar. For American ‘ladies’ who shoplifted, see Abelson, E.S., When Ladies Co A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (Oxford, 1989), 148–72.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ ‘Jaguda tun de! (Pickpockets are back!)’, Yoruba News, 27 02 1940, 4.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ ‘Aṣiri ọmọ jaguda’, 4.Google Scholar

⁶¹ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Odunsi, to Abasi, and Williams, , 3 04 1939.Google Scholar

⁶² ‘Ibadan’, West African Pilot, 29 03 1941, 3.Google Scholar

⁶³ ‘Thieves invade market’, Daily Times, 26 08 1949, 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ ‘Ibadan’, 3.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ ‘“Jaguda Boys” at Ibadan employ “Hands Up” system’, 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Falola, , Politics and Economy in Ibadan, 270, 332.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Atanda, J.A., The New Oyo Empire, 1894–1934 (London, 1973), 249–85.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Ibadan Division Annual Report, 1938, 6Google Scholar; RH, MSS.Afr.s.1907, Papers of Sumner, 6–9; Ojo, O.A., ‘The changing status of the Olubadan of Ibadan, 1893–1983’ (Department of History, University of Ibadan M.A. thesis, 1990)Google Scholar; Watson, R.I., ‘Chieftaincy politics and the development of civic consciousness in Colonial Ibadan’ (University of Oxford D.Phil, thesis, forthcoming).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Abasi, to Ward, E.R., District Officer, Ibadan, 28 12 1936Google Scholar. For a cross-cultural, inter-temporal comparison showing the time-depth of tackling crime, see James VI of Scotland/James I of England suppressing the crime in the Anglo- Scottish border in the early seventeenth century: Donaldson, G., Scotland: James V to James VII (Edinburgh, 1965), 227Google Scholar; Wormald, J., Court, Kirk and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh, 1991), 162–3.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Nigeria Ordinance no. 43 of 1933 to Prescribe the Powers and Duties of Native Authorities, clause 12 (1). Powers of repatriation were on the statute books of other colonies; for example, colonial officers could use the Township Rules of Tanganyika to banish any native considered an undesirable inhabitant from Dar es Salaam (a town only a tenth the size of Ibadan in 1931): Burton, A., ‘Crime and colonial order in Dar es Salaam, 1919–39’, in Africa's Urban Past, SOAS, University of London, 19–21 06 1996, 3Google Scholar. It can be no coincidence that both of these cases formed part of the modernization of Native Authorities presided over by Sir Donald Cameron who was successively Governor of Tanganyika and Nigeria in the 1930s.

⁷¹ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Ince, to Sumner, , Acting Divisional Officer, Ibadan, 5 02 1937Google Scholar; NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Ince, to Sumner, , 25 02 1937.Google Scholar

⁷² NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Minute by Shankland, 31 03 1939.Google Scholar

⁷³ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Akande, to Abasi, and Sumner, , 9 05 1939.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ ‘Pickpockets to be expelled from Ibadan’, Nigerian Daily Times, 20 06 1940, 3.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ ‘Jagudas’, West African Pilot, 4 06 1949, 2.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ ‘Gang of pickpockets menace Ugep market’, African Advertiser, 26 08 1940, 4Google Scholar; ‘Three thieves waylay holder of 101 pounds and rub his eyes with pepper’, Southern Nigeria Defender, 6 07 1949, 1.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ ‘Pickpockets fleece wealthy trader’, Nigerian Observer, 13 01 1940, 1Google Scholar; ‘Police begin campaign to rid pickpockets’, Southern Nigeria Defender, 6 09 1949, 1Google Scholar; ‘Undergraduates of theft’, 2.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ ‘Ibosi ọmọ-jaguda (Pickpocket alarm)’, Yoruba News, 3 03 1936, 3Google Scholar; NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Abasi, to Dickinson, , 5 06 1940.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ ‘A recurrent menace’, African Mirror, 11 07 1940, 2Google Scholar. Also, ‘Letter to the editor, Ibadan pickpockets, from “Worried”’, Daily Times, 26 11 1951, 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ ‘Ọmọ jaguda 1'Ekọ (Pickpockets in Lagos)’, Yoruba News, 20–27 09 1938, 2–3Google Scholar; ‘Rogues and vagabonds’, Nigerian Daily Times, 21 06 1940, 4Google Scholar; ‘Letter to the editor, Those jaguda boys!, from “Citizen”’, African Mirror, 11 07 1940, 2Google Scholar; ‘Pickpockets in Lagos’, West African Pilot, 13 08 1940, 4Google Scholar; ‘About jaguda boys, from Evans Otusanya’, Daily Times, 2 03 1949, 5Google Scholar; Heap, S., ‘From alikali boys to area boys: male juvenile delinquents on Lagos Island, 1920s–90s’, forthcoming.Google Scholar

⁸¹ ‘Lawlessness at Ereko market’, Daily Service, 26 08 1941, 2Google Scholar; ‘Jaguda boys’, African Advertiser, 22 06 1942, 2.Google Scholar

⁸² ‘Robbers increase in number, by “Big Man”’, Daily Service, 30 05 1950, 4.Google Scholar

⁸³ ‘Jaguda boys’, West African Pilot, 29 11 1940, 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ ‘Hooliganism and worse’, Nigerian Daily Times, 6 11 1940, 4.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ ‘Letter to the editor, Pickpockets at bus stops, from E.A. Jacobs, Lagos’, Daily Times, 14 08 1952, 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ ‘Pocket picking in Supreme Court’, Nigerian Daily Times, 13 09 1940, 7.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ ‘Won tun de!’, 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Pearce, R.D., ‘Morale in the colonial service in Nigeria during the Second World War’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 11, 2 (1983), 175–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Post, and Jenkins, , Price of Liberty, 25–6.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ ‘Affairs in Ibadan’, Nigerian Daily Times, 28 06 1944, 3.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Odunsi, to Sumner, , 4 03 1939Google Scholar; NAI, OYOPROF 1/1608, Odunsi, to Abasi, , 21 10 1943.Google Scholar

⁹¹ NAI, OYOPROF 1/1608, MacKenzie, J.A., Secretary, Western Provinces, to H.F.M. White, Senior Resident, Oyo Province, 1 04 1941Google Scholar; ‘Crime wave in disrepute’, Soulhern Nigeria Defender, 7 07 1949, 2Google Scholar; Tamuno, T.N., The Police in Modern Nigeria (Ibadan, 1970), 106Google Scholar; Rotimi, K., ‘The native administration police forces of Western Nigeria, 1905–51’, Odu, 30 (1986), 110–28.Google Scholar

⁹² NAI, OYOPROF 1/1608, Odunsi, to Abasi, , 3 01 1944.Google Scholar

⁹³ ‘Burglars and jagudas’, Southern Nigeria Defender, 7 10 1949, 2.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ RH, MSS.Afr.s.1907, Papers of Cox, H.B., Divisional Officer, Ibadan, ‘Draft of democratisation proposals’, 5 08 1943, 19.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Labinjoh, J., Modernity and Tradition in the Politics of Ibadan: 1900–1975 (Ibadan, 1991), 24, 26Google Scholar. Thanks to Ruth Watson for the correct founding dates.

⁹⁶ Krapf-Askari, , Yoruba Towns, 26, 28.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ ‘Delinquents increase in Ibadan’, Daily Times, 16 11 1949, 7.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ NAI, IBADIV 1/1/167, Sumner, to Abasi, , 21 04 1939.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ NAI, OYOPROF 1/1352/vol. II, Minute by Abell, 29 09 1943Google Scholar. Also, Iliffe, J., The African Poor (Cambridge, 1987), 193–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Coleman, J.S., Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley, 1958)Google Scholar; Sklar, R.L., Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (New York, 1963)Google Scholar; Ige, B., People, Politics and Politicians of Nigeria (1940–1979) (Ibadan, 1995).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Fafunwa, A.B., The History of Education in Nigeria (London, 1974), 167–70.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Ekpo, S.S., Juvenile Delinquency in Nigeria (Uyo, 1996)Google Scholar; ‘Nigeria's image today’, West Africa, 16–22 12 1996, 1963–4Google Scholar; ‘Crime, prostitution reign supreme’, Post Express [Lagos], 4 01 1997, 1–2Google Scholar; ‘The reign of pickpockets’, Sunday Champion [Lagos], 12 01 1997, M1–2Google Scholar; ‘The extortion albatross’, Daily Champion, 24 01 1997, 9Google Scholar; Heap, , ‘From alikali boys to area boys’.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Iliffe, , African Poor, 185.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Shoemaker, , Theories of Delinquency, 192.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ ‘A recurrent menace’, 2.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Humphries, , Hooligans or Rebels?, 156.Google Scholar