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³ Thomas, Religion and Magic pp 414-24, 681-98, 767-74, 789-94; Sena, John F., ‘The English Malady: The Idea of Melancholy from 1700-1760’ (Ph D diss. Princeton University, 1967)Google Scholar; Moore, Cecil A., Backgrounds of English Literature 1700-1760 (Minneapolis, 1953) ch 5Google Scholar; Rousseau, G. S., ‘Psychology’ in The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth-Century Science ed Rousseau, G. S. and Porter, R. (Cambridge 1980) ch 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Uyrd, Max, Visits to Bedlam: Madness and Literature in the Eighteenth Century (Columbia, S.C. 1974)Google Scholar; Porte, Michael V. De, Nightmares and Hobbyhorses: Swift, Sterne, and Augustan Ideas of Madness (San Marino, Calif, 1975)Google Scholar; Hunter and Macalpine, Three Hundred Years pp 277-564; Porter, Roy, ‘Being Mad in Georgian England’ History Today 31 (December 1981) pp 42–8.Google ScholarPubMed

⁴ See for example Alexander, F. G. and Selsnick, S. T., The History of Psychiatry (London 1967)Google Scholar; Zilboorg, G., A History of Medical Psychiatry (New York 1941)Google Scholar. Foucault, Michel, Histoire de la folie à l’âge classique (2nd edn Paris 1971)Google Scholar is of course an exception. His interpretation resembles the one advanced here in some respects, but Foucault’s view is loftier, so lofty that the connection between the changes he describes and historical events in France and elsewhere is sometimes difficult to discern. Porter, ‘Being Mad in Georgian England’, briefly sketches an approach to eighteenth-century psychiatry that complements the perspective of this article.

⁵ Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic pp 27-57, 582-3; Bossy, John, The English Catholic Community (London 1975) pp 264–70 Google Scholar; and his ‘The Social History of Confession in the Age of the Reformation’ TRHS 5th ser, 25 (1975) pp 21-38.

⁶ Haller, William, The Rise of Puritanism (New York 1953) p 27 Google Scholar; Greenham, Richard, The Workes (London 1612)Google Scholar; Sibbes, Richard, The Complete Works ed A. 13. Grosart, 7 vols (Edinburgh 1862-64) esp vol IGoogle Scholar; Perkins, William, The workes 3 vols (London 1626-31Google Scholar, esp II: 22-48, III: 437; Bolton, Robert, Instructions for a Right Comforting Afflicted Consciences (2nd ed London 1635)Google Scholar. See Thomas, Religion and Magic for the rejection of ecclesiastical magic and its consequences.

⁷ Haller, Rise of Puritanism ch 3, Watkins, Owen C., The Puritan Experience (London 1972) p 13 Google Scholar; Pettit, Norman, The Heart Prepared: Grace and Conversion in Puritan Spiritual Life (New Haven, 1966) chs 1, 3Google Scholar; McGee, J. S., ‘Conversion and the Imitation of Christ in Anglican and Puritan Writing‘ Journal of British Studies 15 (1976) pp 24–5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For some characteristic advice to sufferers and their spiritual guides see Bolton, Right comforting pp 198-9; Sibbes, Complete Works I: 148-54, IV; 59-74, 83, 88-96, VII: 48-64; Perkins, Werkes I: 375-6, II: 24-48, III: 457.

⁸ Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy III: 311-432, esp 399-400; Taylor, Jeremy, The Whole Works ed Heber, R., 2nd edn rev by Eden, C. P. and Taylor, A. (10 vols London 1850-54), IX: 272Google Scholar; McGee, ‘Conversion’ 26-7; Wood, Thomas, English Casuistical Divinity in the Seventeenth Century (London 1952) pp 132–4 Google Scholar. For religious melancholy see Babb, English Malady pp 47-54; Trosse, George, The Life of the Reverend Mr. George Trosse ed Brink, A. W. (Montreal, 1974) pp 20–31 Google Scholar; Sena, John F., ‘Melancholic Madness and the Puritans’ Harvard Theological Review 66 (1973) pp 294–309.Google Scholar

⁹ Burton, , Anatomy of Melancholy III: 426 Google Scholar. See also Taylor, , Whole Works III: 152-5Google Scholar; McGee, J. S., The Godly Man in Stuart England (New Haven 1976) pp 54–67 Google Scholar; idem ‘Conversion’ 26-33, Wood, English Casuistical Divinity ch 3; McAdoo, H. R., The Structure of Caroline Moral Theology (London 1949) pp 120–131.Google Scholar

¹⁰ A different version of the miracle is related in Matthew, xvii, 14-21. Thomas, Religion and Magic pp 574-7, 586-7; Walker, D. P., Unclean Spirits: Possession and Exorcism in France and England in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia 1981) pp 52–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹ Thomas, Religion and Magic pp 569-88, esp nn 56-9, 67, 73.

¹² There are several modern accounts of the Darrell affair. Thomas, Religion and Magic pp 576-80 and Kocher, Paul H., Science and Religion in Elizabethan England (San Marino, Calif. 1953) pp 127–45 Google Scholar are the most useful; Walker, Unclean Spirits pp 52-73 is the most recent. Walker correctly emphasises the sincerity of Darrell and his associates. The healing miracles of the French Prophets lie outside the scope of the puritan tradition discussed here: see Schwartz, Hillel, The French Prophets (Berkeley 1980) pp 52, 69, 96, 99-100,108,116, 124, 133,142, 205, 219, 241-2.Google Scholar

¹³ Thomas, Religion and Magic esp pp 15-n6,89,148,219,245,539-40,585-6,638-40, 797-800.

¹⁴ Haller, Rise of Puritanism p 33; Trosse, Life p 111. For the origins and persistence of allegorical psychology in sermons and popular drama see Owst, G.R., Literature and the Pulpit in Medieval England (Cambridge 1933) ch IIGoogle Scholar; Spivack, Bernard, Shakespeare and the Allegory of Evil (New York 1958) chs III-VIIGoogle Scholar. For some examples of traditional imagery in the writings of early seventeenth-century divines (not discussed by Haller) see Hall, Joseph, Works 12 vols (Oxford 1839) VIII: 88 Google Scholar; Perkins, William, A Golden chaine [and other treatises] (Cambridge 1600) pp 657–63, 667Google Scholar; Capel, Richard, Tentations (4th edn London 1650) pp 192–4 Google Scholar; Wilson, Thomas, Saints by Calling (London 1620) pp 30, 42-3, 166-7, 195-205Google Scholar; idem, A Sermon of the Spirituall Combat in his Jacob’s Ladder (London 1611); Hildersham, Arthur, quoted in Stannard, David, ‘Death and Dying in Puritan New England’ AHR 78 (1973) p 1311 Google Scholar; Clarke, Samuel, Lives of sundry Eminent Persons (London 1683)Google Scholar; Lawrence, Henry, Of our commvnion And warre with angels (London 1646).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Watkins, O.C., The Puritan Experience (London 1972)Google Scholar is an excellent analysis of the language and conventions of puritan (including quaker) autobiographies, see esp pp 9-10, 13, 168. Bunyan, John, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and Pilgrim‘s Progress ed Sharrock, Roger(London 1966);Google Scholar Cowper, William, Memoir of the Early Life of William Cowper, Esq. written by himself (London 1816).Google Scholar

¹⁶ MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam p 199, Appendix E, Table E.3.

¹⁷ ibid, chs 3,5.

¹⁸ For some contemporary lists of the mundane causes of mental disorders see Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy I: 357-9; Yarrow, Robert, Sovereign Comforts for a troubled conscience (London 1634) pp 29–30 Google Scholar; Sym, John, Lifes Preservative against self-killing (London 1637) pp 211–17 Google Scholar; Drage, William, A Physical Nosonomy (London 1665) p 67 Google Scholar; Blagrave, Joseph, Blagrave’s Astrological Practice of Physick (London 1671) p 184 Google Scholar. For a discussion of the sources of anxiety and depression in the lives of autobiographers of very humble social backgrounds see Capp, B.S., The Fifth-Monarchy Men (London 1972) pp 94–7.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Macfarlane, Alan, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (New York 1971) pp 180–2 Google Scholar, Table 19; MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam pp 198-200, 205, 209-10, Appendix E, Table E.3. For elite complaints about the comprehensiveness of popular credulity see Cotta, John, A Short Discouerie of the vnobseured dangers of seuerall sorts of vnconsiderate Practisers of Physicke in England (London 1612) p 59 Google Scholar; Bernard, Richard, A Guide to Grand lury Men … in Cases of Witchcraft, with a Christian Direction to such as are too much given upon every crosse to Think Themselves betwiched (London 1627) pp 11–18 Google Scholar; Jorden, Edward, A BriefDiscourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London 1603) sig A2Google Scholar; Gaule, John, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London 1646) pp 5, 99-100Google Scholar; Hutchinson, Francis, An historical essay concerning witchcraft (London 1720) pp 332–4.Google Scholar

²⁰ Jollie, Thomas, The Surey Demoniack: or, an account of Satan’s Strange and Dreadful Actings In and about the Body of Richard Dugdale (London 1697) p 21 Google Scholar; Thomas, Religion and Magic pp 640-1; Napier noted that 79 of his clients had visited some other healer before consulting him (and many others probably did not report earlier treatment) MacDonald, , Mystical Bedlam p 286, n 13 Google Scholar. Contemporary physicians complained that people were in the habit of consulting an empiric, an apothecary, or a wizard, and then turned to a ‘legitimate’ physician if that healer’s treatment did not work: see, e.g., Pocton, E., ‘The winnowing of white Witchcraft’, BL, Sloane MS 1954, f 164^v Google Scholar; Burton, , Anatomy of Melancholy II: 7 Google Scholar; Goddard, Jonathon, A Discourse setting forth the unhappy condition of the practice of physick in London (London 1670) pp 19–20;Google Scholar The Present III State of Physick in this Nation (n pi, c 1704-6) pp 32-3; The Fundamental Laws of physick (London 1711) pp 2-6; Guybon, Francis, An essay Concerning the Growth of Empiricism; Or the Encouragement of Quacks (London 1712) pp76–7.Google Scholar

²¹ Bodleian Library, Ashmole MSS, 223, f 124^v (Persivall), 235, f 117 (Olive), 196, f 151 (Peach). For other examples see MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam pp 135, 144-5, 201-2.

²² Baxter, Richard, The certainly of the Worlds of Spirits (London 1691) p 38 Google Scholar. Thomas discussion of the personification of evil thoughts and actions is typically insightful and well-documented, Religion and Magic pp 560-9. For some additional material see HMC, Report 5 Pine Coffin (1876) p 380; Bovet, Richard, Pandaemonium ed Montague Summers (Aldington, Kent 1951) p 116 Google Scholar (both on suicide); MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam pp 133-4, 201-6 (a wide range of evil impulses blamed on spirits and witches by Napier’s clients and others).

²³ Gaule, Select Cases pp 121-2. Thomas, Religion and Magic pp 567-8; The impossibility of witchcraft (London 1712) p 21 ; Hutchinson, Historical essay pp 332-4. A stimulating discussion of binary symbolism in the writings of Renaissance demonologists is Clark, S., ‘Inversion, Misrule and the Meaning of Witchcraft’, Past & Present no. 87 (1980) pp 382–93.Google Scholar

²⁴ Baxter, Richard, Reliquiae Baxteriana ed Sylvester, Matthew (London 1696) Preface, section VI.Google Scholar

²⁵ Baxter, Richard, Gildas Salvianus: The First Part, i.e., The Reformed Pastor (London 1656) pp 77, 94.Google Scholar See also idem, ‘The Cure of Melancholy and Overmuch Sorrow, By Faith and Physic’ in his Practical Works ed William Orme, 23 vols (London 1830) XVII: 236-85; idem, The Signs and Causes of Melancholy ed Samuel Clifford (London 1716); Doddridge, Philip, The Works ed Job Orton, 6 vols (London 1804) IV: 299–335, esp 322Google Scholar; idem, Some Remarkable Passages in the life Of the Honourable Col. James Gardiner (London 1747) pp 163-6.

²⁶ Baxter, Reliquiae Baxteriana Pt 1:83-4, 89-90, Pt III: 85-6; idem, Certainty of Spirits pp 171-2; idem, Signs and Causes pp x-xi; Heywood, Oliver, His Autobiography, Diaries, Anecdote and Event Books ed Turner, J. H., 4 vols (Brighouse and Bingley 1881-85) I: 229, 251, 255, 279, 282, 285, 287, 292, 358; II: 61, 78, 82, 103, 211, 262, 280, 297, 299, 301; III: 95, 101, 105, 115, 125, 163, 189, 191, 193, 201; IV: 31, 38, 109, 121, 161, 170, 268, 273Google Scholar; Newcome, Henry, The Diary ed Thomas Heywood (Chetham Society 28, 1849) pp 55–8, 74-7, 92, 132, 133, 140, 186, 193, 216Google Scholar; Jolly, Thomas, The Note Book of the Reu. Thomas Jolly ed Henry Fishwick (Chetham Society NS 33 1895) pp 20–1.Google Scholar

²⁷ Fox, George, Journal ed Nickalls, J. L. (Cambridge 1952) pp 42–4, 139, 171, 230, 652, 742Google ScholarPubMed; idem, George Fox’s ‘Book of Miracles’ ed Henry J. Cadbury (Cambridge 1948) pp3, 9, 37, 40, 43, 60, 69-70, 90, 92, 109, 114, 115, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, 132, 135, 140, 143; The First Minute Book of the Gainsborough Monthly Meeting of the Society of Friends 1669-1719 ed Harold W. Brace (Lincoln Record Society, 38, 40, 44, 1948-49, 1951), I: xix, index, sv Reckitt, Thomas: Gentleman’s Magazine 18 (1748) pp 402–3 Google Scholar; McKenzie, I., The Social Activities of the English Friends (New York 1935) Pt 2.Google Scholar

²⁸ Wesley, John, The Works 14 vols (London 1842) VI: 358 Google Scholar; VII: 315. For Baxter’s views on Satan’s part in causing and worsening mental disorders see Practical Works XVII: 242, 245-9, 272, 276, 284-5; XXII: 342-9; Reliquiae Baxteriana Pt II: 86; Certainty of Spirits pp 40, 59-60, 121, 171-4.

²⁹ Baxter, , Practical Works XVII: 276 Google Scholar; Wesley, , Works VI: 358 Google Scholar. Spiritual physicians sometimes criticised doctors’ attempts to cure mental disorders by purely physical means; Fox, Book of Miracles p 121; Wesley, , Works III: 237 Google Scholar, (commenting on the case of a melancholy and distracted woman), ‘Let Physicians do all they will or can: yet it will be found in the end that “this kind goeth our not but by prayer and fasting”’; see also II: 456.

³⁰ Watts, Michael R., The Dissenters: From the Reformation to the French Revolution (Oxford 1978) p 344 Google Scholar; Huyberts, Adrian, A Corner-Stone Laid towards the Building of a New college (that is to say, a new Body of Physicians) in London (London 1675) p 19.Google Scholar

³¹ Wesley, , Works II: 456 Google Scholar.

³² Wesley, , A plain account of the people called Methodists (6th edn London 1764) pp 26–7 Google Scholar; idem, works:39, 59, 81.

³³ Trosse, Life p 110.

³⁴ George Whitefield, Journals (n pl 1960) pp 52-4, 132.

³⁵ Wesley, , Works I: 218 Google Scholar. Cf Baxter, Certainty of Spirits pp 193-5, 234; Heywood, Oliver, The Whole Works 5 vols (Idle 1827), IV: 537–9; V: 192-6, 199,426,482, 511.Google Scholar

³⁶ This analysis of contemporary accounts of healing fasts has been influenced by Victor Turner‘s more sophisticated discussions of curative rituals: The Forest of Symbols (Ithaca 1967) esp ch IX; The Drums of Affliction (Ithaca 1968); The Ritual Process (Ithaca 1977). For a brief discussion of Turner’s work see Douglas, Mary, ’The Healing Rite’, in her Implicit Meanings (London 1975) pp 142–52 Google Scholar.

³⁷ I have adopted the broad definition of ‘psychomachia’ employed by Spivack in his excellent discussion of allegorical drama, Shakespeare and the Allegory of Evil chs III-VI.

³⁸ Jollie, Surrey Demoniack p 13.

³⁹ Wesley, , Works III: 140–4.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ The symbolism of incident and place, as well as the outright personification, in Terrill‘s narrative recall the works of Dent and Bunyan: Dent, Arthur, The Plain Man’s Path-way to Heaven (London 1617)Google Scholar; Bunyan, Grace Abounding and Pilgrim‘s Progress. See Owst, Literature and the Pulpit ch II for the traditions that influenced Dent and Bunyan.

⁴¹ The Records of a Church of Christ in Bristol, 1640-1687 ed Roger Hayden (Bristol Record Society Publications 27 1974) pp 139-41.

⁴² Thomas notes that the manuscript versions of a dispossession performed by John Foxe in 1574 ‘influenced the language and style of many later cases’. Religion and Magic p 481. The story of Francisco Spira’s apostasy was even more influential, and it even served as the basis for a late morality play, Woodes, Nathaniel, The Conflict of Conscience ed Davis, Herbert and Wilson, F. P. (London 1952)Google Scholar. Thomas, Religion and Magic p 581, nn 79, 80 gives a list of the post-Restoration dispossessions by dissenters. In addition to the narratives discussed in the text, the accounts of healing fasts I found most useful were Clarke, Samuel, The lives of Two and Twenty English Divines (London 1660) pp 91–4 Google Scholar; Barrow, John, The lords arm stretched out in an Answer of Prayer (London 1664)Google Scholar; Petto, Samuel, A Faithful Narrative of the Wonderful and Extraordinary fits which Mr Thomas Spatchet … was under by Witchcraft (London 1693)Google Scholar; Baxter, Reliquiae Baxteriana Pt I: 81-2; Clark, William, A True Relation of one of Mrs Jane Farrer’s … being Possessed with the devil (London ? 1710)Google Scholar; Aldridge, Thomas, The Prevalency of Prayer (London 1717)Google Scholar; The Lives of the Early Methodist Preachers ed Jackson, Thomas 6 vols (3rd edn London, 1865), V: 271-3; VI: 127-8.Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ Baxter, Reliquiae Baxteriana Pt I: 85-6.

⁴⁵ Baxter, Certainly of Spirits pp 183-4.

⁴⁶ Fox, Journal pp 1-6; comp], [Henry Walker Spirituall Experiences of Sundry Beleevers (London 1652) pp 6, 18-19, 26, 34-5, 43, 47, 82, 135, 138, 258, 290, 358-9Google Scholar; Capp, Fifth-Monarchy pp 94-6; Ebner, Dean, Autobiography in Seventeenth-Century England (The Hague 1971) pp 28, 29Google Scholar; Watkins, Puritan Experience p 162-9; Watts, The Dissenters pp 173-87, 200-4, 417; Lives of Methodist Preachers I: 241-2, 261, 270-6, 300-1, 303-5; II: 62, 269-71; III: 45, 48, 62-5; IV: 179, 202-3, 204-7, 251-3; V: 7, 109-114, 230; VI: 20, 61-7, 72, 87, 141. CfWalzer, Michael, The Revolution of the Saints (Cambridge, Mass. 1965) pp 200–10, 309, 313.Google Scholar

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