Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T08:43:49.440Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Prediction of Stress in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 March 2014

Pilar Pozo  and
Encarnación Sarriá
Pilar Pozo*
Affiliation:
UNED: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (Spain)
Encarnación Sarriá
Affiliation:
UNED: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (Spain)
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Pilar Pozo Cabanillas. Departamento de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación. Facultad de Psicología. UNED. Juan del Rosal, 10. 28040. Madrid (Spain). E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Raising a child with autism spectrum disorders presents families with exceptional caregiving challenges. Consequently, parents, particularly mothers, evidence unusually high stress levels. Previous research has identified relevant variables that help explain maternal stress: the child’s behavior problems, social support and the sense of coherence (SOC) as a perception of problem. However, there are few longitudinal studies demonstrating how these variables correlate over time. We present a longitudinal study of 21 Spanish mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) at two measurement time points over an interval of 4.5 years. Our aims are to examine the predictive relationships of these variables (behavior problems, social support and SOC) to stress and to analyse their changes over time. Data were collected through questionnaires. The results of the regression analysis (multiple adjusted R 2= .45, ƒ2 = .82) highlight the predictive values of SOC (adjusted R 2 = .31) and the initial stress levels (Δ adjusted R 2 = .14) for stress levels 4.5-years later. Our study used t-tests to compare measurements at the two time points; results demonstrate the permanence of stress levels and behavior problems and the effects of reduced social support and increased SOC levels (t(20) = 2.48, p = .02, Cohen’s d = .63; t(20) = –4.22, p < .001, Cohen’ d = .58). Implications for interventions are discussed.

Keywords

Autism spectrum disordersmaternal stresssense of coherencesocial supportlongitudinal study
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 17 , 2014 , E6
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assesment Resources.Google Scholar
Altiere, M. J. (2006). Family functioning and coping behaviors in parents of children with autism. Master´s theses and Doctoral Dissertations, Paper 54. Michigan, MI: Eastern Michigan University. Retrieved from http://commons.emich.edu/theses/54 Google Scholar
Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Antonovsky, A. (1992). Can attitudes contribute to health? Advances: The Journal of Mind-Body Health, 8, 33–49.Google Scholar
Antonovsky, A. (1993). The structure and properties of the sense of coherence scale. Social Science and Medicine, 36, 725–733. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(93)90033-Z Google Scholar
Antonovsky, A., & Sagy, S. (1986). The development of a sense of coherence and its impact on responses to stress situations. Journal of Social Psychology, 126, 213–225.Google Scholar
Baker, B. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K. A., & Edelbrock, C. E. (2002). Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three-year-old children with and without developmental delay. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107, 433–444. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2002)107<0433:BPAPSI>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
Baker, J. K., Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., Seltzer, M. M., & Taylor, J. L. (2011). Change in maternal criticism and behavior problems in adolescents and adults with autism across a 7-year period. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 465–475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0021900 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker-Ericzén, M. J., Brookman-Frazee, L., & Stahmer, A. (2005) Stress level and adaptability in parents of toddlers with and without autism spectrum disorders. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30, 194–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.30.4.194 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayat, M. (2007). Evidence of resilience in families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 51, 702–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2007.00960.x Google Scholar
Belchic, J. K. (1996). Stress, social support and sense of parenting competence: A comparison of mothers and fathers of children with autism, Down syndrome and normal development across the family life cycle. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 57, 2–A, 574.Google Scholar
Ben-zur, H., Duvdevany, I., & Lury, L. (2005). Associations of social support and hardiness with mental health among mothers of adult children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49, 54–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00662.x Google Scholar
Boss, P. G. (1999). Ambiguous loss. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Boyd, B. A. (2002). Examining the relationship between stress and lack of social support in mothers of children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17, 208–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10883576020170040301 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bristol, M. (1979). Maternal coping with autistic children: The effects of child characteristics and interpersonal support. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, NC.Google Scholar
Bristol, M. (1984). Family resources and successful adaptation to autistic children. In Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G. (Eds.), The effects of autism on the family (pp. 289–319). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Bristol, M., & Schopler, E. (1983). Stress and coping in families of autistic adolescents. In Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G. B. (Eds.), Autism in adolescents and adults (pp. 251–276). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Bromley, J., Hare, D, J., Davison, K., & Emerson, E. (2004). Mothers supporting children with autistic spectrum disorders: Social support, mental health status and satisfaction with services. Autism, 8, 409–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361304047224 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brookman-Frazee, L., & Koegel, R. L. (2004). Using parent/clinician partnerships in parent education programs for children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6, 195–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10983007040060040201 Google Scholar
Bryson, S. (1996). Brief report: Epidemiology of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 165–167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02172005 Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 Google Scholar
Cohen, O., & Dekel, R. (2000). Sense of coherence, ways of coping, and well-being of married and divorced mothers. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 22, 467–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007853002549 Google Scholar
Cuxart, F. (1995). Estrés y psicopatología en padres de niños autistas [Stress and psychopathology in parents of autistic child]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.Google Scholar
Dale, E., Jahoda, A., & Knott, F. (2006). Mothers’ attribution following their child’s diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders: Exploring links with maternal level of stress, depression and expectation about their child’s future. Autism, 10, 463–469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361306066600 Google Scholar
Díaz-Herrero, A., Brito de la Nuez, A. G., López Pina, J. A., Pérez-López, J., & Martínez-Fuentes, M. T. (2010). Estructura factorial y consistencia interna de la versión española del Parenting Stress Index-Short Form [Factor structure and internal consistency of the Spanish version of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form]. Psicothema, 4, 1033–1038.Google Scholar
Díaz-Herrero, A., López-Pina, J. A., Pérez-López, J., Brito de la Nuez, A. G., & Martínez-Fuentes, M. T. (2011). Validity of the parenting stress index-short form in a sample of Spanish fathers. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14, 990–997. http://dx.doi.org/10.5209/rev_SJOP.2011.v14.n2.44 Google Scholar
Dunst, C. J., Trivette, C. M., & Cross, A. H. (1986). Mediating influences of social support: Personal, family, and child outcomes. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 90, 403–417.Google Scholar
Dyson, L. L. (1997). Fathers and mothers of school age children with developmental disabilities: Parental stress, family functioning and social support. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 102, 267–279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(1997)102<0267:FAMOSC>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
Einfeld, S. L., Tonge, B. J., & Rees, V. W. (2001). Longitudinal course of behavioral and emotional problems in Williams syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 106, 73–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2001)106<0073:LCOBAE>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
Ericksson, M., & Lindtröm, B. (2006). Antonovsky’s sense of coherence scale and the relations with health: A systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 376–381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2005.041616 Google Scholar
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149–1160. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149 Google Scholar
Fecteau, S., Mottron, L., Berthiaume, C., & Burack, J. A. (2003). Developmental changes of autistic symptoms. Autism, 7, 255–268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361303007003003 Google Scholar
Gerstein, E. D., Crnic, K. A., Blacher, J., & Baker, B. L. (2009). Resilience and the course of daily parenting stress in families of young children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 53, 981–997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2009.01220.x Google Scholar
Gill, M. J., & Harris, S. L. (1991). Hardiness and social support as predictors of psychological discomfort in mothers of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 407–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02206867 Google Scholar
Gray, D. E. (2002). Ten years on: A longitudinal study of families of children with autism. Journal and Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 27, 215–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1366825021000008639 Google Scholar
Gray, D. E. (2003).Gender and coping: The parents of children with high functioning autism. Social Science & Medicine, 56, 631–642. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00059-X Google Scholar
Gray, D. E. (2006). Coping over time: The parents of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 970–976. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00933.x Google Scholar
Gray, D. E., & Holden, W. J. (1992). Psycho-social well-being among the parents of children with autism. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 18, 83–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07263869200034841 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, R. P. (2003). Child behavior problems and partner mental health as correlates of stress in mothers and fathers of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 231–237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00485.x Google Scholar
Hastings, R. P., & Brown, T. (2002). Behavior problems of autistic children, parental self-efficacy and mental health. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107, 222–232. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2002)107<0222:BPOCWA>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
Hastings, R. P., & Johnson, E. (2001). Stress in UK families conducting intensive home-based behavior intervention for their young child with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 327–336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010799320795 Google Scholar
Herring, S., Gray, K., Taffe, J., Tonge, B., Sweeney, D., & Einfeld, S. (2006). Behavior and emotional problems in toddlers with pervasive developmental disorders and developmental delay: Associations with parental mental health and family functioning. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 374–382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00904.x Google Scholar
King, G. A., Zwaigenbaum, L., King, S., Baxter, D., Rosenbaum, P., & Bates, A. (2006). A qualitative investigation of changes in the belief systems of families of children with autism or Down syndrome. Child: Care, Health and Development, 32, 353–369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00571.x Google Scholar
Konstantareas, M. M., & Homatidis, S. (1989). Assessing child symptom severity and stress in parents of autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 459–470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1989.tb00259.x Google Scholar
Konstantareas, M., & Papageorgiou, V. (2006). Effect of temperament, symptom severity and level of functioning of maternal stress in Greek children and youth with ASD. Autism, 10, 593–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361306068511 Google Scholar
Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behavior problems on caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 172–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00732.x Google Scholar
Lounds, J., Seltzer, M., Greenberg, J., & Shattuck, P. (2007). Transition and change in adolescents and young adults with autism: Longitudinal effects on maternal well-being. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112, 401–417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2007)112%5B401:TACIAA%5D2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
Mak, W., Ho, A., & Law, R. (2007). Sense of coherence, parenting attitudes and stress in mothers of children with autism in Hong Kong. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 20, 157–167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2006.00315.x Google Scholar
Matson, J. L., Mahan, S., Hess, J. A., Fodstad, J. C., & Neil, D. (2010). Progression of challenging behaviors in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders as measured by the Autism Spectrum Disorders-Problem Behaviors for Children (ASD-PBC). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 400–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.010 Google Scholar
McCubbin, M. A., & McCubbin, H. I. (1993). Families coping with illness: The Resiliency Model of Family Stress and Adaptation. In Danielson, C., Hamel-Bissel, B., & Winstead-Fry, P. (Eds.), Families, health and illness: Perspectives on coping and intervention. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.Google Scholar
McGovern, C., & Sigman, M. (2005). Continuity and change from early childhood to adolescence in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 401–408.http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00361.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meadan, H., Halle, J. W., & Ebata, A. T. (2010). Families with children who have autism spectrum disorders: Stress and support. Exceptional children, 77(1), 7–36.Google Scholar
Oelofsen, N., & Richardson, P. (2006). Sense of coherence and parenting stress in mothers and fathers of preschool children with developmental disability. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 31(1), 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13668250500349367 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsson, M. B., & Hwang, C. P. (2002). Sense of coherence in parents of children with different developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46, 548–559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2788.2002.00414.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pallant, J. F., & Lae, L. (2002). Sense of coherence, well-being, coping and personality factors: Further evaluation of the sense of coherence scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 39–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00134-9 Google Scholar
Pisula, E. (2007). A comparative study of stress profiles in mothers of children with autism and those of children with Down’s syndrome. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 20, 274–278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2006.00342.x Google Scholar
Pisula, E. (2011). Parenting stress in mothers and fathers of children with autism spectrum disorders. In Mohammadi, M. R. (Ed.), A comprehensive book on autism spectrum disorders (pp. 87–106). Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Open Access. Retrieved from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/a-comprehensive-book-on-autism-spectrum-disorders/parenting-stress-in-mothers-and-fathers-of-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders Google Scholar
Pozo, P. (2010). Adaptación psicológica en madres y padres de personas con trastornos del espectro autista: Un estudio multidimensional [Psychological adaptation in mothers and fathers of children with autism spectrum disorders: A multidimensional study]. (Published doctoral dissertation). UNED: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. Madrid, Spain. DOI: 10.5772/18705. Google Scholar
Pozo, P., Sarriá, E., & Brioso, A. (2011). Psychological adaptation in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. In Mohammadi, M. R. (Ed.), A comprehensive book on autism spectrum disorders (pp. 107–130). Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Open Access.Google Scholar
Pozo, P., Sarriá, E., & Méndez, L. (2006). Estrés en madres de personas con trastornos del espectro autista [Stress in mothers of people with autism spectrum disorder]. Psicothema, 18, 342–347.Google Scholar
Rojahn, J., Matson, J. L., Lott, D., Svensen, A., & Smalls, Y. (2001). The behavior problems inventory: An instrument for the assessment of self-injury, stereotyped behavior, and aggression/destruction in individuals with developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 577–588. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1013299028321 Google Scholar
Sagy, S., Antonovsky, A., & Adler, I. (1990). Explaining life satisfaction in later life: The sense of coherence model and activity theory. Behavior, Health and Aging, 1, 11–25.Google Scholar
Saloviita, T., Itaelinna, M., & Leinonen, E. (2003). Explaining the parental stress of fathers and mothers caring for a child with intellectual disability: A double ABCX Model. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 300–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00492.x Google Scholar
Sanders, J. L., & Morgan, S. B. (1997). Family stress and adjustment as perceived by parents of children with autism or Down syndrome: Implications for intervention. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 19, 15–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J019v19n04_02 Google Scholar
Scorgie, K., & Sobsey, D. (2000). Transformational outcomes associated with parenting children who have disabilities. Mental Retardation, 38, 195–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/0047-6765(2000)038<0195:TOAWPC>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
Sharpley, C. F., & Bitsika, V. (1997). Influence of gender, parental health, and perceived expertise of assistance upon stress, anxiety, and depression among parents of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 22, 19–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13668259700033261 Google Scholar
Shattuck, P. T., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Orsmond, G. I., Bolt, D., Kring, S., Lounds, J., & Lord, C. (2007). Change in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescents and adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1735–1747. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0307-7 Google Scholar
Shu, B. (2009). Quality of life of family caregivers of children with autism: A mother’s perspective. Autism, 13, 81–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361307098517 Google Scholar
Sigman, M., & Capps, L. (1997). Children with autism: A developmental perspective. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, L., Hong, A., Seltzer, M., Greenberg, J., Almeida, D., & Bishop, S. (2010). Daily experiences among mothers of adolescents and adults with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 167–178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0844-y Google Scholar
Tomanik, S., Harris, G. E., & Hawkins, J. (2004). The relationship between behaviors exhibited by children with autism and maternal stress. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 29, 16–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13668250410001662892 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tonge, B., Brereton, A., Kiomall, M., Mackinnon, A., King, N., & Rinehart, N. (2006). Effects on parental mental health of an education and skills training program for parents of young children with autism: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 561–569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000205701.48324.26 Google Scholar
Twoy, R., Connolly, P. M., & Novak, J. M. (2007). Coping strategies used by parents of children with autism. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 19, 251–260. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7599.2007.00222.x Google Scholar
Weiss, M. J. (2002). Hardiness and social support as predictors of stress in mothers of typical children, children with autism and children with mental retardation. Autism, 6, 115–130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361302006001009 Google Scholar