Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T20:13:40.915Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Clinical Spanish Norms of the Stroop Test for Traumatic Brain Injury and Schizophrenia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 December 2014

Genny Lubrini ,
José A. Periañez ,
Marco Rios-Lago ,
Raquel Viejo-Sobera ,
Rosa Ayesa-Arriola ,
Ignacio Sanchez-Cubillo ,
Benedicto Crespo-Facorro ,
Juan Álvarez-Linera ,
Daniel Adrover-Roig  and
José M. Rodriguez-Sanchez
Genny Lubrini
Affiliation:
Hospital Universitario La Paz (Spain)
José A. Periañez*
Affiliation:
Universidad Complutense (Spain)
Marco Rios-Lago
Affiliation:
UNED (Spain)
Raquel Viejo-Sobera
Affiliation:
Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (Spain)
Rosa Ayesa-Arriola
Affiliation:
CIBERSAM, Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental (Spain)
Ignacio Sanchez-Cubillo
Affiliation:
Red Menni de Servicios de Atención al Daño Cerebral (Spain)
Benedicto Crespo-Facorro
Affiliation:
CIBERSAM, Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental (Spain)
Juan Álvarez-Linera
Affiliation:
Hospital Ruber Internacional, Madrid (Spain)
Daniel Adrover-Roig
Affiliation:
Universidad de las Islas Baleares (Spain)
José M. Rodriguez-Sanchez
Affiliation:
CIBERSAM, Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental (Spain)
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jose A. Periáñez. Dept. Psicología Básica II. Facultad de Psicología. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Campus de Somosaguas. 28223. Madrid (Spain). Phone: +34–913943181. Fax: +34–913943189. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Stroop Color-Word Test is a useful tool to evaluate executive attention and speed of processing. Recent studies have provided norms for different populations of healthy individuals to avoid misinterpretation of scores due to demographic and cultural differences. In addition, clinical norms may improve the assessment of cognitive dysfunction severity and its clinical course. Spanish normative data are provided for 158 closed traumatic brain injury (TBI) and 149 first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SCH) patients. A group of 285 Spanish healthy individuals (HC) was also considered for comparison purposes. Differences between groups were found in all Stroop scores with HC outperforming both clinical groups (p < .002 in all cases; d > .3 in all cases). TBI patients scored lower than SCH patients in word-reading (p < .001 and d = .6), and color-naming conditions (p < .001 and d = .4), but not in the color-word condition (p = .34 and d = .03). However, SCH patients exhibited a higher interference effect as compared to TBI (p < .002 and d = .5). Three sets of norms stratified by age and education (HC), and by education (TBI and SCH) are presented for clinical use.

Keywords

attentionclinical normsinterference controlschizophreniatraumatic brain injury
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 17 , 2014 , E96
Copyright
Copyright © Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arfanakis, K., Haughton, V. M., Carew, J. D., Rogers, B. P., Dempsey, R. J., & Meyerand, M. E. (2002). Diffusion tensor MR imaging in diffuse axonal injury. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 23, 794–802.Google ScholarPubMed
Badcock, J. C., Dragovic, M., Dawson, L., & Jones, R. (2011). Normative data for Rey’s Auditory Verbal Learning Test in individuals with schizophrenia. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26, 205–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acr005 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buré-Reyes, A., Hidalgo-Ruzzante, N., Vilar-López, R., Gontier, J., Sánchez, L., Pérez-García, M., & Puente, A. E. (2013). Neuropsychological test performance of Spanish speakers: Is performance different across different Spanish-speaking subgroups? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35, 404–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2013.778232 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brébion, G., Smith, M. J., Gorman, J. M., Malaspina, D., Sharif, Z., & Amador, X. (2000). Memory and schizophrenia: Differential link of processing speed and selective attention with two levels of encoding. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 34, 121–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3956(99)00050-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calamia, M., Markon, K., & Tranel, D. (2013). Scoring higher the second time around: Meta-analyses of practice effects in neuropsychological assessment. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27, 1077–1105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.809795 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casals-Coll, M., Sánchez-Benavides, G., Meza-Cavazos, S., Manero, R. M., Aguilar, M., Badenes, D., … NEURONORMA Study Team. (2014). Spanish multicenter normative studies (NEURONORMA project): Normative data and equivalence of four BNT short-form versions. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29, 60–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/act085 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coubard, O. A., Ferrufino, L., Boura, M., Gripon, A., Renaud, M., & Bherer, L. (2011). Attentional control in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychology, 25, 353–367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022058 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crespo-Facorro, B., Pérez-Iglesias, R., Ramirez-Bonilla, M., Martínez-García, O., Llorca, J., & Vázquez-Barquero, J. L. (2006). A practical clinical trial comparing haloperidol, risperidone, and olanzapine for the acute treatment of first-episode nonaffective psychosis. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 1511–1521. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v67n1004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felmingham, K. L., Baguley, I. J., & Green, A. M. (2004). Effects of diffuse axonal injury on speed of information processing following severe traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 18, 564–571. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.564 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golden, C. (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: Manual for clinical and experimental uses. Chicago, IL: Stoelting.Google Scholar
Golden, C. J. (1999). Stroop, Test de Colores y Palabras. Manual de aplicación. [Stroop Color and Word Test. Examiner’s manual]. Madrid, Spain: TEA Ediciones.Google Scholar
Golden, C. J., & Freshwater, S. M. (2002). The Stroop Color and Word test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Chicago, IL: Stoelting Co.Google Scholar
González-Blanch, C., Álvarez-Jiménez, M., Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Pérez-Iglesias, R., Vazquez-Barquero, J. L., & Crespo-Facorro, B. (2006). Cognitive functioning in the early course of first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders: Timing and patterns. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 364–371. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-0646-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hepp, H. H, Maier, S., Hermle, L., & Spitzer, M. (1996). The Stroop effect in schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Research, 22, 187–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(96)00080-1 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iverson, G. L., Slick, D. J., & Franzen, M. D. (2000). Clinical normative data for the WCST-64 following uncomplicated mild head injury. Applied Neuropsychology, 7, 247–251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324826an0704_7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D Jr.. (1966). The Stroop Color-Word Test: A review. Acta Psychologica, 25, 36–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(66)90004-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kizilbash, A., Warschausky, S., & Donders, J. (2001). Assessment of speed of processing after pediatric head trauma: Need for better norms. Pediatric Rehabilitation, 4, 71–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13638490026403 Google Scholar
Lansbergen, M. M., Kenemans, J. L., & van Engeland, H. (2007). Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology, 21, 251–262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.21.2.251 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S., O’Donnell, V. M., & Grossman, R. G. (1979). The Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test. A practical scale to assess cognition after head injury. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167, 675–684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/t28509-000 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayas, J., Fuentes, L. J., & Ballesteros, S. (2012). Stroop interference and negative priming (NP) suppression in normal aging. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54, 333–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2010.12.012 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moering, R. G., Schinka, J. A., Mortimer, J. A., & Graves, A. B. (2004). Normative data for elderly African Americans for the Stroop Color and Word Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 61–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(02)00219-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norman, M. A., Moore, D. J., Taylor, M., Franklin, D. Cysique, L., Ake, C., ... The HNRC Group (2011). Demographically corrected norms for African Americans and Caucasians on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised, Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised, Stroop Color and Word Test, and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test 64-Card Version. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 793–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.559157 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peña-Casanova, J., Quiñones-Ubeda, S., Gramunt-Fombuena, N., Quintana, M., Aguilar, M., Molinuevo, J. L., … NEURONORMA Study Team (2009). Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project): Norms for the Stroop color-word interference test and the Tower of London-Drexel. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24, 413–429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp043 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Periáñez, J. A., Ríos-Lago, M., Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Adrover-Roig, D., Sánchez-Cubillo, I., Crespo-Facorro, B., … Barcelo, F. (2007). Trail Making Test in traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, and normal ageing: Sample comparisons and normative data. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 433–447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.022 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ríos, M., Periáñez, J. A., & Muñoz-Céspedes, J. M. (2004). Attentional control and slowness of information processing after severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 18, 257–272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699050310001617442 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Crespo-Facorro, B., González-Blanch, C., Perez-Iglesias, R., Vázquez-Barquero, J. L., & PAFIP GroupStudy. (2007). Cognitive dysfunction in first episode psychosis: The processing speed hypothesis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 107–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.191.51.s107 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rognoni, T., Casals-Coll, M., Sánchez-Benavides, G., Quintana, M., Manero, R. M., Calvo, L., … Peña-Casanova, J. (2013). Estudios normativos españoles en población adulta joven (proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes): Normas para las pruebas Stroop Color-Word Interference Test y Tower of London-Drexel University. [Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for Stroop Color-Word Interference and Tower of London-Drexel University Tests]. Neurología, 28, 73–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.191.51.s107 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., Santisi, M. N., Arecco, A. D. R., Salvatierra, J., Conde, A., & Lenis, B. (2002). Stroop effect in Spanish-English bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 692–693. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0887-6177(00)80077-3 Google Scholar
Seo, E. H., Lee, D. Y., Choo, I. H., Kim, S. G., Kim, K. W., Youn, J. C., … Woo, J. I. (2008). Normative study of the Stroop Color and Word Test in an educationally diverse elderly population. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 1020–1027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.2027 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, norms, and commentary (Third Edition Ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Summers, M. J. (2006). Increased inattentional blindness in severe traumatic brain injury: Evidence for reduced distractibility? Brain Injury, 20, 51–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699050500309742 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, G., & Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet, 304, 81–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(74)91639-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uttl, B., & Graf, P. (1997). Color-Word Stroop test performance across the adult life span. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19, 405–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01688639708403869 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van der Elst, W., Van Boxtel, M. P. J., Van Breukelen, G. J. P., & Jolles, J. (2006). The Stroop Color-Word Test: Influence of age, sex, and education; and normative data for a large sample across the adult age range. Assessment, 13, 62–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283427 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van der Elst, W., Molenberghs, G., Van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. (2013). Establishing normative data for repetitive cognitive assessment: A comparison of different statistical methods. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1073–1086. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0305-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westerhausen, R., Kompus, K., & Hugdahl, K. (2011). Impaired cognitive inhibition in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the Stroop interference effect. Schizophrenia Research, 133, 172–181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.08.025 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zalonis, I., Christidi, F., Bonakis, A., Kararizou, E., Triantafyllou, N. I., Paraskevas, G., … Vasilopoulos, D. (2009). The stroop effect in Greek healthy population: Normative data for the Stroop Neuropsychological Screening Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24, 81–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp011 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed